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WORKS BY THE SAME AUTHOR, 



Grotenfelt's Modern Dairy Practice. American Edition. 
By F. W. WoLL. Second Edition. New York, 1895. 
285 pp. $2.00. 

A Book on Silage. Chicago, 111., 1895. 190 pp. Paper, 
50 cents; cloth, $1.00. 

Dairy Calendar, 1895-96. New York, 1894-95. 327-319 
pp. $1.00. 

Agricultural Calendar, 1895-96. New York, 1894-95. 
304 pp. $1.00. 

The last two publications form the foundation of the 
present volume. 



A 

HANDBOOK 



FOR 



FARMERS AND DAIRYMEN. 



BYr 
Ff W. WOLL, 

Assistant Professor of Agricultural Chemistry^ 
University of Wisconsin, 

WITH THE ASSISTANCE OF 

WELL-KNOWN SPECIALISTS. 



SliS^ttO £nu0trations. 



FIRST EDITION, 
FIRST THOUSAND. 



NEW YORK : 

JOHN WILEY & SONS. 

London : CHAPMAN & HALL, Limited. 

1897. 



[.'^ 










\^^^ 
^ ^ 



Copyright, 1897, 

BY 

F. W. WOLL. 



ROBERT DRUMMOND, ELECTROTYPER AND PRINTER, NEW YORK. 



PREFACE. 



The effort of the author has been to make this small 
volume a" compendium of useful information on farm and 
dairy topics. Brief discussions on subjects of importance 
and interest to farmers and dairymen have been intro- 
duced, and useful facts, tables, formulas, receipts, agricul- 
tural statistics, etc., are given to such an extent as the plan 
of the work permitted. Valuable data scattered throughout 
our agricultural literature, in the reports and bulletins of 
our experiment station, and the scientific divisions of 
the United States Department of Agriculture, as well as in 
other public documents and in farm papers and standard 
works, have been gathered in this Handbook and arranged 
in such a manner as to make them easily accessible and 
convenient for reference purposes. 

The present volume is a third edition of the Dairy and 
Agricultural Calendars previously published by the author. 
Much new material, both original and compiled, has been 
included, and special articles, tables, statistics, etc., have 
been verified, and brought up to date, making the book, as 
it is hoped, of considerable value, and securing for it as 
favorable reception and as enthusiastic friends as its pre- 
decessors found. 

The author takes this opportunity of thanking the follow- 
ing able writers and specialists who have so materially 

iii 



IV PREFACE. 

increased the usefulness of the book by comprehensive, 
concise contributions on subjects in their particular lines 
of study: Professors W. H. Caldwell, J. A. Craig, L. H. 
Dewey, F. H. Farrington, B. E. Fernow, E, S. Goff, 
G. H. Hicks, A. W. Richter, H. L. Russell, Thos. Shaw, 
Wm. P. Wheeler; and Messrs. John Boyd, W. G. Clark, 
M.D.C., John W. Decker, N. S. Fish, J. D. Frederiksen, 
H. B. Gurler, S. Hoxie, J. Noer, M.D., J. H. Pickrell, 
H. B. Richards, L. P. Sisson, J. McLain Smith, and C. M. 
Winslow. 

While all possible care in the preparation of the manu- 
script and in the proof-reading of the book has been taken, 
it cannot be expected that errors have been entirely avoided, 
and readers discovering any such will confer a favor by 
communicating them to the author. 

F. W. WOLL. 

Agricultural Experiment Station, 
Madison, Wis., February, 1897. 



TABLE OF CONTENTS. 



PART I. AGRICULTURE. 

I. FEEDING STUFFS. 

PAGE 

Composition of Feeding Stuffs 1 

Average Composition of American Feeding Stuffs 3 

Average American Digestion Coefficients of Feeding Stuffs 6 

Classification of Cattle Foods 9 

Classification of Concentrated Feed Stuffs 9 

Feeding Standards for Farm Animals 10 

Rations for Dairy Cows 11,13 

Calculation of Components of Feed Rations 11 

Weight of Concentrated Feeding St uffs 15 

Food Requirements of Farm Animals 15 

Comparative Value of Cattle Foods 15 

Prices of Cereals per Bushel and per Ton 17 

Valuation of Feeding Stuffs 17 

II. FARM ANIMALS. 

Characteristics of Breeds of Live Stock. Prof. John A. Craig, of 

Wisconsin Experiment Station 18 

Feeding and General Care of Poultry. Prof. Wm. P. Wheeler, of 

N. T. (Geneva) Experiment Station 25 

Synopsis of Breeds of Poultry — 30 

Heredity. Prof. Thos. Shaw, of Minnesota Experiment Station. .. 30 

m. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 

Common Diseases of Farm Animals. W. G. Clark, M.D.C., Beaver 

Dam, Wis 35 

Veterinary Remedies and Doses. W. G. Clark, M.D.C, Beaver 

Dam, Wis 45 

Suppression of Hog Cholera and Swine Plague 49 

Remedies for the Horn-fly 51 

List of Disinfectants 52 

V 



VI CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Rules for the Disinfection of Stables 52 

Regulations for the Government of Dairies and Dairy Farms in the 

District of Columbia 53 

IV. FIELD CROPS. 

Quantity of Seed Required per Acre 56 

Seed Mixtures for Hay and Permanent Pastures 57 

The Weight and Average Composition of Ordinary Crops, in Pounds 

per Acre 59 

Soiling Crops Adopted to Northern New England States 60 

Time of Planting and Feeding Soiling Crops 61 

Capacity of Cylindrical Silos 61 

Area of Feeding Surface in Silos Required for Different Herds 62 

Number of Plants or Hills for an Acre of Ground 63 

V. HORTICULTURE. 

Usual Distances for Planting Vegetables 64 

Quantity of Seed of Vegetables Required to Sow an Acre o 65 

Distances Apart for Fruit-trees 66 

Average Yields per Acre of Various Crops 67 

Relation of Specific Gravity, Dry Matter, and Starch Content of 

Potatoes 68 

Specific Gravity, Sugar Content, and Boiling-point of Maple Sugar. . 69 

Weight of Sugar Obtained from 100 lbs. of Maple Syrup 70 

Temperatures to which Perishable Goods may be Subjected without 

Injury 71 

VI. SEEDS. 

Seed-testing for the Farmer. Gilbert H. Hicks, in charge of Seed 

Investigations, U. S. Department of Agriculture 72 

Table of Germination Standards 77 

Number, Weight, Cost of Grass Seeds, and Amount to Sow per 

Acre 77 

Notes on the Adaptability and Uses of Grasses and Clovers 79 

VII. WEEDS. 

Table of Noxious Weeds. L. H. Dewey, Assistant Botanist U. S. 

Department of Agriculture 82 

VIII. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 

Treatments for Injurious Insects and Fungous Diseases of Plants. 

Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station 87 

Spraying Calendar 89 

Figiiting the Chinch-bug by I\Ieans of Kerosene Emulsion 92 

A Cheap Orchard-spraying Outfit 93 



CONTENTS. Vll 



IX. FORESTRY. 
Forestry for Farmers. B. E. Fernow, Chief Division of Forestry, 

U. S. Department of Agriculture 95 

Number of Trees on an Acre 99 

Distance Table for Tree-planting 102 

Fuel Value and Specific Gravity of some of the More Important 

Woods of the United States 100 

States and Territories Observing Arbor Day, with Dates . . 103 

Forest-flre Laws in the United States 104 

X. 3IANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 

Valuatio^j of Manures and Fertilizers 109 

Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding Stuffs and Farm Products Ill 

Manurial Value of Feeding Stuffs 112 

Amount of Soil Ingredients Withdrawn by Various Crops 114 

Amount of Fertilizing Materials Contained in Different Crops Grown 

on One Acre 115 

Farmyard Manure Required to Replace Ingredients Abstracted from 

the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops 116 

Amount and Quality of Manure Produced by Stock 116 

Composition, Amount, and Value of Manure Produced by Different 

Kinds of Farm Animals. 117 

Quantities of Nitrogen and Ash Constituents Voided by Animals 117 

Percentage Composition of Commercial Fertilizing Materials 118 

Exhaustion of Fertilizers 120 

Equivalent Quantities of Fertilizing Materials 121 

Trade Values of Fertilizing Ingredients in Raw Materials and Chemi- 
cals, 1896 122 

Conversion Table for Calculating Fertilizing Ingredients. 123 

XI. AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 

Drainage : Reasons for Tile- draining Land 124 

Number of Rods and of Tiles per Acre, with Drains at Various Dis- 
tances Apart 125 

Size of Tiles Required for Draining under Average Conditions 125 

Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain 126 

Rule for Obtaining Size of Main Pipes 126 

Number of 12-inch Pipes Required per Acre at Different Distances 

between the Drains 126 

Rise of the Slope for 100 Feet 127 

Quantity of Earth Removed per Rod of Drains of Various Dimen- 
sions ... .... 127 

Rainfall 128 

Windmills : Table Showing the Force and Velocity of Wind 129 

Number of Square Feet and Acres Irrigated by Windmills of Dif- 
ferent Sizes 129 

Table Showing Capacity of Win-lmills 130 



Vlll CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Table Showing Economy of Windmills 131 

Nominal Horse-power Required for the Discharge of Given Quan- 
tities of Water with Lifts of 10 and 20 ft 132 

Irrigation : Definition of Technical Terms 132 

Carrying Capacity of Pipes 135 

Flow of Water through Straight Pipes 135 

Power Required to Raise Water from Deep Wells by Pumping 136 

Approximate Cost of Different Kjuds of Pipe Used for Irrigation. . 136 
Average Cost per Mile of Constructing Irrigating Canals and 

Ditches ... 136 

The California Weir Table 137 

Capacity of Cisterns and Tanks 137 

Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, per Foot in Depth 138 

Roads : Road-making 138 

Importance of Good Roads 140 

Tractive Force Required for Carriages . . 140 

Fraction of the Weight of a Vehicle and Load Required to Move 

Same on a Level Road 141 

Draught of Horses 141 

Labor Done by one Horse on Canals, Railroads, and Turnpikes 142 

Labor Done by Team in Plowing 142 

The Effect of Wide Wagon Tires 143 

Average Quantity of Stone Required to Keep Roads in Repair 143 

Interior Dimensions of Farm Buildings 144 

Xn. HUMAN FOODS. 

Composition of Food Materials 145,150 

Percentages of Nutrients, Water, and Refuse in Food Materials. ... 149 

Pecuniary Economy of Food 152 

Amounts of Nutrients Furnished for 25 Cents in Food Materials 153 

Dietary Standards 155 

Diagram of a Good Steer's Carcass, as Cut Up and Priced in Eastern 

Markets 156 

Diagrams of Cuts of Veal. Mutton, and Pork 156a 

Live Weight and Dressed Weight of Steers of Different Breeds and 

Ages 1566 

Proportion of Beef to the Live Weight of Cattle 1566 

Comparative Results Obtained with Fattening Animals 157 

Live Weight and Gains Made by Swine 157 

Proportion of the Various Parts of Cattle, Sheep, and Swine 158 



CONTENTS. IX 

PART II. DAIRYING. 
I. DAIRY COWS. 

PAGE 

On the Origin and Characteristics of the Different Breeds of Dairy 

Cattle 161 

I, Jersey Cattle, By the Author 162 

II. Guernsey Cattle. Prof. W, H. Caldwell, Sec'y 164 

III. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. S. Hoxie, Supt 168 

IV. Ayrshires. C. M. Winslow, Sec'y 171 

V. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. J. H. Pickrell, Sec'y 1T3 

VI. Red Polled Cattle. J. McLain Smith, Sec'y 176 

VII. Devon Cattle. L. P. Sisson, Sec'y 179 

VIII. Dutch Belted Cattle. H. B. Richards, Sec'y. 181 

IX. Brown-Swiss Cattle. N. S. Fish, Sec'y .. 183 

Yield of Milk and Fat from Dairy Cows 185 

Results of Tests of Dairy Breeds Conducted by American Experi- 
ment Stations 186 

Results of Breed Tests Conducted at World's Columbian Exposition, 

1893 187 

Average Yields of Milk and Fat by Premium Cows at Recent State 

Fairs 188 

Highest Record for Yield of Fat Made by Any Cow in a Public Test 

at a Fair 188 

Official Milk and Butter Records of Holstein, Jersey, Guernsey, and 

Ayrshire Cows 189 

Results of English Milking Trials 189 

English Standards for Annual Yield of Milk of the Various Breeds. . 190 

Average Yields and Composition of Milk of Different Breeds 190 

Average Percentage Composition of Milk from Different Breeds 191 

Methods of Judging the Value of Dairy Cows 191 

Buying and Selling Cows by Tests of their Milk 192 

II. MILK. 

Percentage Composition of Various Kinds of Milk 193 

Average Analyses of American Samples of Dairy Products 193 

Average Composition of Cows' Milk, with Variations 194 

Composition of Morning and Evening Milk 194 

Composition of Different Parts of the Same Milking 194 

Calculation of Components of Cows' Milk 195 

Relation of Fat to Casein and Other Solids 195 

Fertilizing Ingredients in Dairy Products 196 

Composition of Colostrum 196 

Composition of Ash of Cows' Milk and Colostrum 196 

A Ciiapter on Milk Testing 197 

Table for Converting N. Y. Bd. of Health Lactometer Degrees to 
Quevenne Lactometer Degrees 200 



t CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

Temperature Correction Table for Specific Gravity of Milk 201 

Calculation of Total Solids of Milk 203 

Table for Calculating Solids from Specific Gravity and Fat 205 

Milk Standards in Different States, Cities, and Countries 206 

Adulteration of Milk 207 

Tables for Converting Quarts of Milk into Pounds, and vice versa. . . 209 

III. CREAM. 

Percentage Composition of Cream and Other Dairy Products 210 

Yield of Cream from Milk of Different Richness 211 

Hand and Power Cream Separators on the Market, 1896 212 

Formulas for Finding the Fat Content of Cream 213 

Handling and Care of Cream Separators. J. D. Frederiksen, Mgr. 

Chr. Hansen's Laboratory, Little Falls, N. Y 214 

Per Cent Fat in Centrifugal Skim-milk . . 215 

Loss of Butter Caused by Inefficient Skimming 220 

Relation of Fat Content of Separator Skim-milk to Speed of Bowl, 

Quantity of Milk Separated, and Tempeiature of the Milk 221 

Steam-boiler and Engine Management. Prof. A. W. Richter, of the 

University of Wisconsin 221 

On the Preservation of Milk and Cream by Heat. Dr. H. L. Russell, 

of Wisconsin Experiment Station 225 

Directions for the Sterilization of Milk 227 

Quantity of Water or Ice Required for Cooling Milk or Cream 229 

IV. BUTTER. 

Butter-making. H. B. Gurler, ex-President Illinois State Dairy- 
men's Association 230 

On the Use of Pure Cultures in Butter- and Cheese-making 232 

Boyd's Process of Cream-ripening. John Boyd, Chicago, III 236 

The Alkaline Tablet Test of Acidity in Milk or Cream. Prof. E. H. 

Farrington, of Wisconsin Dairy School 239 

Percentage Composition of Butter 241 

Directions for the Use of Mann's Test for Ascertaining the Acidity 

of Cream 242 

Average Chemical Composition of Sweet Cream- and Sour Cream- 
butter 242 

Analyses of American Premium Butters 243 

Percentage Composition of European Samples of Butter 243 

Formula for Calculating the Yield of Butter 243 

Amount of Butter Obtained from 100 lbs. of Cream of Different 

Richness 244 

Yield of Butter from Milk of Different Richness 245 

Milk Required for Making One Pound of Butter 246, 247 

Distribution of Milk Ingredients in Butter-making 247 

Score for Judging Butter 247 



CONTENTS. XI 



PAGE 

English Scale of Points for Judging Butter 248 

Score in Judging Proficiency of Butter-makers. 248 

American Score for Judging Proficiency of Butter-makers 249 

V. CHEESE. 

How American Cheese is Made. John W. Decker, of Wisconsin Ex- 
periment Station 250 

A. Factory or Cheddar Cheese 250 

B. Cheese Made on the Farm 252 

The Fermentation Test 253 

Causes of Tainted Milk 253 

Determination of Humidity in Cheese-curing Rooms 255 

Table Showing Relative Humidity of the Air 257 

Score for Judging Cheese 259 

English Scale of Points for Judging Cheese 259 

Percentage Composition of Cheese 260 

Varieties and Analyses of Cheese . 260 

Distribution of Ingredients in Cheese-making 261 

Formulas for Finding Yield of Cheddar Cheese 261 

Yield of Different Kinds of Cheese from 100 lbs. of Milk . . 262 

Average Loss of American Cheddar Cheese in Curing 263 

Loss in Weight of Cheese during Curing 263 

Table Showing Relative Cheese Value of Milks of Different Richness 264 

Synopsis of Manufacture of Principal Varieties of Cheese 266 

Quantities of Whey to be Returned to Patrons .... 267 

VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND CHEIiSE FACTORIES. 

Payment of Milk at Creameries and Cheese Factories 268 

Methods of Payment for Milk at Cheese and Butter Factories 269 

Price of Milk of Different Richness per Hundred Pounds 271 

Directions for Making Dividends in Creameries and Cheese Factories. 273 

Table Showing Average Per Cent of Fat in Milk 275 

Suggestions to Patrons of Cheese Factories and Creameries 277 

By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Creamery Associations 279 

By-laws and Rules for Co-operative Cheese Factories 282 

Rules for Patrons and Instructions to Cream or Milk Gatherers 284 



PART III. GENERAL TOPICS. 
t CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 

Constitution and By-laws of Agricultural Clubs 287 

Con stitution of Village-improvement Societies 292 

Constitution of Road Leagues 294 



XU CONTENTS. 

PAOB 

n. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 

Explanation of Flag Signals Adopted by the U. S. Weather Bureau.. 296 

List of Headquarters of State Weather Services 298 

Beneficial and Harmful Hawks and Owls 298 

What to do in Case of Accidents. J. Noer, M.D., Stoughton, Wis.... 299 

Treatment for Poisoning 302 

Interest Tables 303 

Wages by the Week and the Day 304 

Gestation Calendar ... 305 

Duration and Frequency of Heat in Farm Animals 306 

Domestic and Foreign Postage 307 

Postal and Express Money Order Rates 308 

III. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

Customary System of Weights and Measures 309 

Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric, and vice versa. 311 

Kilograms Converted into Pounds, and vice versa 312 

Inches Reduceil to Decimals of a Foot 312 

Ounces Reduced to Decimals of a Pound 312 

Comparisons of Fahrenheit, Centigrade, and Reaumur Thermometer 

Scales 313 

Government Land Measures 316 

To Measure Corn on the Cob in Cribs.. . 317 

Legal Weights of Grain, Seeds, etc 318 

Specific Gravity of Various Substances 319 

Values of Foreign Coins 321 

IV. STATISTICAL TABLES. 

United States, Area and Population, 1890 323 

Canada. Area and Population, 1891 . . 323 

Normal Mean Temperature of the Air in the United States 324 

Normal Precipitation in the United States 325 

Meteorological Data for Canada 326 

Farming Population of the United States 327 

Number of Farms in the United States, and their Value 327 

Statistics Concerning Farms in the United States 328 

Comparison of Leading Industries in the United States 326 

Average Agricultural Wages in United States in 1893-95 329 

Value of Principal Farm Products, 1859-89 329 

Statistics of the Principal Crops in the United States in 1895 330 

Area, Product, and Value of Principal Crops, 1895 334 

The Principal Cereal Products of the United States, 1850-1890 334 

Average Cost per Acre of Raising Wheat and Corn in the United 

States, 1893 335 

Production of Various Crops in Canada, 1881.. ....,..,..., 884 



CONTENTS. Xlll 



PAGE 

Average Cost per Acre of Raising Wheat and Com in the United 

States, 1893 335 

Average Farm Price of Agricultural Products, 1886-1895 335 

Number and Value of Farm Animals in the United States, 1870-95. . . 340 
Estimated Number of Farm Animals on Farms and Ranges in the 

United States, Price per Head, and Value, January, 1896 336 

Dairy Statistics for the United States (Eleventh Census) 338 

Number of Farm Animals in Canada, 1891 340 

Number of Pure-bred Cattle in the United States, 1895. 340 

Statistics of Butter, Cheese, and Condensed-milk Factories (Eleventh 

Census) 341 

Cheese, Butter, and Condensed-milk Factories in the United States, 

according to States 34*2 

Dairy Products Produced on Farms, according to the Eleventh 

Census 343 

Domestic Exports of Butter and Cheese, 18T0-95 344 

Exports of Dairy Products from Canada, 1868-95 344 

Poultry and Egg Product of the United States 345 

Importance of Apiarian Industry in the United States 345 

Production of Honey and Beeswax in rhe United States, according 

to Census Returns of 1869, 1879 and 1889 345 

V. DIRECTORY OF AGRICULTURAL INSTITUTIONS. 

Organization of the U. S. Department of Agriculture . . 346 

Ministers of Agriculture in Canada 347 

American Educational Institutions having Courses in Agriculture. . . 348 
Statistics of Agricultural Schools and Colleges in the United States. 350 

List of American Veterinary Colleges 351 

Dairy Schools in the United States and Canada 352 

Agricultural Experiment Stations in the United States and Canada. 353 

VI. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 

More Important Works on Dairying 354 

A List of Fifty Agricultural and Horticultural Books 355 

List of American and Foreign Dairy Papers 357 

The Main American Agricultural and Horticultural Papers 358 

INDBX 363 



tIDMPOSITIQN OP FEEDING STUFFS. 



Chart showing Pounds of Water and of 
Digestible Matter in 100 lbs. 



Whter 

[ 1 



Digestible 
Protein 



Digestible 
Carbohydrates 



DigestWle 

Fat 



-1 1 1 1 r- 

10 20 30 40 60 



Pa'Sture grass 
Oreen clover 
Oreen com 
Com silage 
Fodder Corn 
Com stalks 
Timothy hay 
Bed Clover hay 
Oat straw 
Potatoes 
Mangel-wurzels 
Carrots 
Indian Com 
Wheat 
Barley 
Oats 
Bye 

Feayneal 
Corn & cob meal 
Com cob 
Wheat bran 
Wheat middlings 
Bice bran 
Linseed meal O.P. 
Linseed meal N.P. 
Cotton seed meal 
Cotton seed hulls 
Gluten meal 
"Matt sprouts 
^rewera^ grains 




jm 




l^m 



10 20 



40 60 60 70 80 90 lOOT 



PART I. AGRICULTURE. 



I. FEEDING STUFFS. 
COMPOSITION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

In the ordinary chemical analysis of feeding stuffs the 
following constituents are determined, viz., water, ash, pro- 
tein, crude fiber, nitrogen-free extract, ether extract (fat). 

Water is present in all feeding stuffs, from above 90 per 
cent in green foods and some kinds of roots, to below 10 per 
cent in very dry hay and in concentrated food stuffs. 

Ash, or mineral matter, is the non-combustible part of 
plants, and goes to make the bones of the animal, or to sup- 
ply material for the maintenance of other parts of the ani- 
mal body. 

Pi'otein is the name of a large group of substances, all 
characterized by the fact that they contain the element ni- 
trogen; hence they are also called nitrogenous substances; 
and foods rich in protein are spoken of as nitrogenous foods. 
The protein substances supply the material necessary for the 
formation of lean meat, ligaments, tendons, hair, horns, 
hoofs, etc., and also of casein of the milk. Crude protein 
includes albuminoids and a??iides; among the former are 
found white of Qgg, lean meat, curd of milk and gluten; 
among the latter, asparagin and other crystallizable and 
water-soluble substances, generally speaking, of a somewhat 
inferior nutritive value. 

Crude Fiber or woody fiber is the framework of plants, 
forming the walls of their cells ; it is usually the least 
digestible portion of feeding stuffs, and the nutritive value 
of a plant is decreased as its crude fiber content increases. 

Nitrogen-free Extract includes starch, sugar, gums, or- 
ganic acids, etc., and forms a most important and usually a 
very large part of cattle foods. Together with cellulose, 
nitrogen-free extract forms the group of bodies called carbo- 

1 



2 AGRICULTURE. 

hydrates. A general name for carbohydrates is heat-produc- 
ing substances y as against flesh-foryjiing substances, i.e., 
nitrogenous compounds, the names indicating the main 
effices of the substances in animal nutrition. 

Ether Extract, or crude fat {oil) includes a group of com- 
pounds dissolved out by ether in the analysis of foods; fat 
forms the main part of the extract; most feeding stuffs 
contain only a small quantity of fat, but this component 
is ;ievertheless of considerable importance in the feeding 
of animals. 

Organic Matter signifies the combustible portion of chemi- 
cally dry feeding stuffs, i.e., all the components given in the 
preceding except water and ash. 

Digestible Components. — The food stuffs used in the feed- 
ing of farm animals are only partly of direct value to the 
animals, the portion which their digestive fluids are unable 
to dissolve being voided in the excrements. The digesti- 
bility of fodders has been determined by direct experiments 
with different kinds of farm animals, in this country or 
abroad. The digestioii coefficients (see pp. 6-8) mean the 
percentages of any one component which have been found 
to be digested by the animals experimented on. 

Nutritive Ratio signifies the ratio between the digestible 
nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous components in a feeding 
stuff, or a combination of such. As fat has been found to 
yield about 2. 2 times more heat, when burned, than do starch, 
sugar, and other carbohydrates, the per cent of digestible 
fat in a food is multiplied by 2.2 when the nutritive ratio is 
to be calculated; the product is added to the per cent of 
digestible carbohydrates (nitrogen-free extract -|- crude 
fiber), and this sum is divided by the per cent of digestible 
protein. (The factor 2+ or 2\ is sometimes used for obtain- 
ing "the starch equivalent" of fat.) 

Example: Clover hay contains on the average 6.5 percent 
digestible protein, 34.9 per cent digestible carbohydrates, 
and 1.6 per cent digestible fat (see following table): 

1.6X2.2 = 3.52; 34.9 + 3.52 = 38.42; 38.42^6.5 = 5.9. 

Nutritive ratio, i : 5.9. 



FEEDING STUFES. 



AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF AMERICAN 
FEEDING STUFFS. 



Feeding Stuffs. 



Green Fodders and 
Silage. 

Pasture gjass 

Green lodder corn 

(maize) 

Alfalfa (lucern) 

Green clover 

Alsike clover, in bloom 

Rye fodder 

Oat fodder 

Sorghum fodder 

Red top, in bloom .. 

Meadow fescue, in 

bloom 

Timothy 

Blue-grass 

Prickly comfrey 

Corn silage 

Corn silage, Wis. anal. 

Clover silage 

Sorghum silage 



Hay and Dry Coarse 

Fodders. 
Fodder corn (maize), 

field cured 

Same, Wis. analyses 

Corn stalks (stover), 

field cured. . . 

Hay from red clover. . 
Hay from mammoth 

clover 

Hay f'm alfalfa (lucern) 
Hay from alsike clover 

Oat hay 

Timothy hay 

Hay from mixed mea 

dow grasses 

Hay from Hun. grass. 

Marsh hay 

Oat straw.. 

Barley strawt 

Wheat straw 

Rye straw , 

Buckwheat straw 

Pea vinet 



Percentage Composition.* 



80.0 

79-3 
71.8 
70.8 
74.8 
76.6 
62 

79-4 
64.8 

69.9 

61.6 

65.1 

88.4 

79.1 

73-6 

72 

76 



42 
29.0 

40.1 
15-3 

21.2 
8.4 
9-7 
8.9 

13.2 

16.0 
7-7 

7-9 
9 
14 
9.6 

7 

9.9 
13.6 



1.2 
2.7 
2.1 
2.0 
1.8 

2-5 

I.I 

2-3 



2.8 



3-4 
6.2 



CU 



u 



3-5 
1.8 



2.4 
3- 

4- 
2.4 

1-7 
2.7 
4.2 



4-5 
6.5 



4.0 

5- 
7- 
8. 

7-4 

II. 6 

II. 2 

6.1 

9.4 

10.8 
II. 8 

9- 
I. 
6. 

7- 
8.4 

6.4 






9-7 

12.2 

12.3 
13-5 

11. 

6.8 

19-3 
II. 6 

19. 1 



14-3 
20.2 
17.6 

II. I 
12.9 
II. 6 
15-3 



14.3 34-7 
36.5 



3.8 19.7 
12.3,24.8 



6.1 10.7 24.5 
7.4 14.3 25.0 
" 3 12.8 25.6 
7.6 29.3 
5.9 29.0 



6.2 
4.4 



4.6 
6.0 
5-2 
5-1 
5-7 
4.2 

3-2 
S-S 
6.6 



429.9 
5 27.7 
8 30.1 
037.0 
5 36-0 
438.1 
038.9 
2 43.0 
035-5 



31-9 
38.1 

33-6 
42.7 
40.7 

45-1 
4S-0 

41.0 
49 -o 

46.3 
42.4 

390 
43-4 
46.6 

35-1 
33-7 



X 




u 


a ti 


(U 


(« rt 


x: 


£^S 


W 






18.0 



.828.3 

1.2 36.3 

1-3 32 
•3 9-4 
•819-5 
.924.2 

1-2 25.4 
.3 22.8 



1-655 
1.7,66 



i.i'sfi 

3-3j78 

3-972 
2.2 84 
2.9 82 
2.984 
2.582 

2.1 79 

2.1 86 
2.7 86 
2.385 

1.5 80 
1.386 

1 .2 89 
1.384 

1.6 79 



Per cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 



^ to 



2.6 

1-3 

3-6 
2.9 
2.7 
2.1 
2.7 
.8 

2-3 

1-7 
2.2 
2.9 
1.4 
.8 

1-3 
2.0 

.6 



2.6 
3-7 

2.0 

6.5 



5' 
7' 
6, 

A' 
?,■ 

3-6 
4-5 
3-5 
1.6 

• 9 



2-3 

4-3 



10.6 

II. 8 
II. 4 
14. 

13- 

14. 

22.7 

12.7 

20.5 

17.8 
23 
19 
4.6 
II. 6 
14.0 

135 
14.9 



33-3 
40.4 

33-4 
34-9 

32 

37-8 
36.8 
46.4 
43-9 



M 



I.I 
1.2 

.6 
1.6 

1.9 

1-3 
1.4 

1-5 
1.2 



♦ Largely from Jenkins and Winton's Compilation of Analyses of 
American Feeding Stuffs, t Konig. 



AGRICULTURE. 

AVERAGE C03IP0SITI0N OF A3IERICAN 
FEEDING STUFFS.— Co fih'nued. 



Feeding Stuffs. 



Roots and Tubers. 



Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes . 

Red beets 

Sugar beets. ... 
Mangel-wurzels. 

Rutabagas 

Turnips 

Carrots 



Grains and Flour Mill 
Prodticts, 

Corn (maize). 

Corn and cob meal 

Corn cob 

Corn bran (hulls) 

Oats 

Oat shorts* 

Oat feed 

Oat dust 

Barley 

Barley screenings — . , 

Wheat 

Wheat bran— roller pro 
cess 

Wheat bran— old pro- 
cess 

Wheat shorts 

Wheat middlings 

Wheat screenings.. . 

Low-grade flour ("red 
dog") 

Rye 

Rye bran 

Rye shorts 

Buckwheat 

Buckwheat bran 

Buckwheat shorts 

Buckwheat middlings 

Rice 

Rice bran 

Rice hulls 

Rice polish 

Pea meal 



Percentage Composition. 



78.9 

6 71 I 

9;88.5 
19S6.5 

9190.9 
4 88.6 

90-5 
.6 



208 

7 
18 

5 

30 

6 

4 



310 

7 

9 
12 

33 



10.9 

15 
10.7 

9 
II. o 

10. o 
7-7 
6.5 
10.9 
12.2 
10.5 



12.0 
II . 



II. 6 



II. 6 
II. 6 

9-3 
12.6 
10.5 
II. I 
12.7 
12.4 

9-7 

8.2 

10. o 

10.5 



PL, 



1-5 
1-5 
1.4 

1-3 
30 
5-2 
3-7 
6,9 
2.4 
3-6 



5-6 

4.9 
4.6 

3-4 
2.9 



1.9 

3-6 

5-9 
2.0 

3-0 

5-1 

51 

•4 

10. o 

13.2 

6.7 

2.6 



10.5 

8.5 
2.4 

9- 
II. 
16. 
16. 

13-5 
12.4 
12.3 
II. 9 

16. 1 

13.0 
14.9 

15-7 
12.5 

15.8 
10.6 
14.7 
18.0 

10. 
12.4 
27.1 
28.2 

7-4 

12. 1 
3-6 

II. 7 



V. 



1.2 6.2 

1.3 7-6 



2. 1 
6.6 
30.1 
12.7 
9.5 
7-5 



8.4 



7-4 
4-7 
4-9 



6 
64.8 

54-9 
62.2 

59-7 
54-5 
59-4 
50.2 
69.8 
61.8 
71.9 

53-7 

58.2 
56.8 
60.2 
65.1 

67.7 

72.5 
63.8 

59-9 
64-5 
38.8 
40.8 

42-3 
79.2 
49.9 
38.6 
58.0 
51-1 



W 



c t; 

bos 



5-4 

3-5 

•5 

5-8 

5-0 

e.e 

7-1 

4.8 



4.2 

3-8 
4-5 
4.0 

3-0 

2.7 

1-7 
2.8 
2.8 
2.2 

3-3 
7.6 

7.5 

•4 

8.8 

•7 
7-3 



20. T 
27.9 
10.5 
12.6 



8.7 

[0.4 



87.6 

83-4 
87.9 

8g.6 



.6 
86.6 

7 
2 
87.7 

82.4 

83 
83.6 

5 
•5 



85 



Per cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 



87.8 

86 

84 

85.8 

85 

86.5 

83.8 

82.2 

87.2 

So. 3 

78.6 

83-3 
86.9 






6.3 
6.5 
1.6 

7-4 
9 

12.6 
12.5 
8.9 
9-5 
9-3 
9 

12.6 

10. 1 

11.6 

12.2 

9.8 

135 
8.3 
9-7 

II. 9 

7-7 

7-4 

21 . 1 

22.0 

4 

5-3 
1.6 

9- 
18.0 



6. 

22.2 

7.6 

9-3 
4.8 

7 

5-5 

7 



64.8 
56.3 
43-9 
59-8 
44-7 
45-7 
46.9 

.38.4 
66.1 

57-3 
64.9 

44.1 

47-5 
45-4 
47.2 

51 

61.3 

65-5 
48.0 

45-1 
49.2 

30-4 
33-5 
33-4 
72.2 

45-1 
44-5 
56.4 
56.0 



* Konig. 



FEEDIXG STUFFS. 

AVERAGE C03IP0SITI0N OF AMERICAN 
FEEDIXG STUFFS.— Coniznued. 



Feeding Stuffs. 



Sorghum seed 

Cow pea 

Soja bean 

Miscellaneous Feeds. 

Malt sprouts 

Brewers' grains, wet .. 

Brewers' grains, dried. 

Hominy chops (meal).. 

Gluten feed.. . . 

Cream gluten meal 

Chicago gluten meal. . . 

Corn oil cake 

Germ meal (corn germ) 

Grano-gluten 

Starch feed, wet 

Cotton-seed meal 

Cotton-seed hulls 

Linseed meal, old pro- 
cess 

Linseed meal, new pro- 
cess 

Palm-nut meal* 

Apples* 

Apple pomace 

Meat-scraps* 

Dried blood* 

Skimmed milk* 

Buttermilk* 

Whey* 



Percentage Composition. 



.5 


14. 


8 


10. 


5 


9- 


15 


75- 


5 


7- 


'4 


10. 


7 


8. 


5 


8. 


3 


9- 


3 


9- 


4 


10. 


^ 


5- 


12 


65. 


37 


8. 


lO 


9- 


21 


9- 


14 


10. 


6oo 


10. 


36 


84. 


7 


76. 


144 


10. 


3 


8. 


96 90. 


8590. 


46 


93- 



2.1 
3-2 
4-7 



5-9 
i.o 

3-6 

2-5 

•9 
1-3 

•9 
2.4 

:?.6 



2.9 



5-7 



9 

20.8 
34-0 



24. 

5- 
22. 

9.9 
21.6 
32.8 
35-8 
24.8 
10. o 
31.0 

6.1 
42.4 

4.2 

32.9 

33-2 

j6.8 

•4 

•4 

71.2 

84.4 
3-3 
4.0 

•91 



2.6 
4 

4 



II. o 

3-8 
12.3 

3-7 
6.8 

1-7 
1 . 

6.7 

5- 

II. 4 

3- 

5.6 

47 4 

8.9 

9 
24 



;w 



is *- 



69.8 

55-7 
28.8 



47- 

•5 
47-9 
64.4 
49.6 
42.0 
46.8 
43.6 
64 

34-8 
22.0 
23.8 
33-2 

35-4 

38.5 
35- 

•5 
16.2 

•3 

4-7 
4.0 

4 



bil 



Per cent 

Digestible 

Matter. 



U 4> 

c ti 

o , 



U 



3.6,85.1 7.0 
1.4 82.0 18.3 
16.9 84.5 29.6 



■7»4-5 198 
.6:23.3; 3.9 
.3 88.7 16.2 
.5,86.6 8.9 
.7,90.8 18.6 



1 90 
6] 89. 

5 88. 
8186. 

2'9I. 

I 34- 



2.9 


84.6 


2.2 


87.2 


7-9 


85.1 


3-0 


84.1 


9-5 


85-3 


•3 


M-7 


T.3 


22.8 


3-7 


85.2 


2.S 


86.8 


.8 


8.9 


I.I 


9.2 


•3 


5-9 



29. 

32- 
22. 

9- 
26.7 

5-5 

36.9 

1.0 

I 
28. 



27.2 
16.0 



68.4 
;58.i 

I 3-9 
.8 

I 



Si rt 
U 



52 

54.2 

17.9 



w 

w 
.c 

3-1 

I.I 

15.9 



36.2 

9-5 

35-5 

61.0 

48.3 

39.6 12.8 
44.1 
42.6 
61.2 



38.8 
21.7 
18 
26 

32.8 

32.9 
52.6 
12.8 
II. 9 
•3 



12.4 

2-3 

12.3 
1.8 

7-1 



^3 



* Kooig. 



6 AGRICULTURE. 

AVERAGE AMERICAN DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS 
OF FEEDING STUFFS 

As Determined by American Experiments. (Jordan.) 



A. — Experiments with Ruminants, 
GREEN FODDER (fed when green). 

Corn (maize) fodder — 

Whole plant, average of all trials. . . 

Dent, immature, Pennsylvania 

in milk, Pennsylvania 

mature, Pennsylvania 

Sorghum, North Carolina and Texas.. 

Rye, Pennsylvania 

Timothy iPJdeuni pratense), Utah. 

Hungarian grass {Setaria italicd)^ Me, 

Pasture grass, Pennsylvania 

Red clover ( Trifolium pratense) 



Corn (maize) silage, whole plant — 

Average of all kinds 

Dent, immature, Maine, New York 
and Pennsylvania 

Dent, in milk, Pennsylvania 

Flint mature, Maine and New York 
Soja-bean silage 



DRIED FODDERS (fed air-dry or partially 
so). 

Corn (maize) fodder, whole plant — 

Averag^e of all kinds , . 

Dent, immature, Maine and Penn. . . 
in milk, New York and Penn.. 

mature, Pennsylvania 

Flint, mature, Maine 

Sweet, mature, Maine 

Corn (maize) butts, Maryland 

husks, Maryland 

fodder, tops above ear, 

Maryland 

pulled, Maryland, 
North Carolina 

and Texas 

stover, Pennsylvania . . , 
Sorghum fodder, leaves, N. Carolina. 
Oat straw, Maine 



37 



50 



U 



w 



bfiW 



te 


6q 


72 


67 


64 


68 


64 


66 


76 


,S2 


77 


7Q 


76 


73 


70 


74 


68 


74 


73 


69 


79 


79 


75 


32 


70 


S3 


63 


6q 


63 


64 


66 


64 


52 


70 


64 


47 


5» 


53 


38 



FEEDING STUFFS. 7 

AVERAGE DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS.— Cc.„//««^a?. 





10 

rt 
tfi 

6 

I 
I 
I 

I 
I 

2 
I 

2 

I 
I 

I 
I 
I 

3 

2 
I 

I 

2 

I 
I 
I 

I 
I 
I 

I 

I 
I 


(0 

u 

a 

6 

I 

2 

I 

I 

I 

2 
2 

ID 
3 
3 

3 
2 
2 
4 

2 
2 

I 

2 

I 
I 
t 

I 
I 
I 

I 

I 
I 


tn 

H 
u 

C 

c75 

4 
3 

2 
2 
I 

3 

3 

22 

5 
5 

2 

3 

I 

3 

3 

2 

\ 

2 
2 

I 
2 

I 

I 

2 
2 


u 

Q 

6i 

54 
62 

65 

54 

56 
60 

58 
61 

54 

64 
61 
72 
56 

58 

62 

61 

53 
66 

59 
62 

56 
60 
61 

58 

94 
78 


J3 
CO 

< 

45 
29 
68 
47 
56 

29 

37 
44 
32 

35 
41 
52 

52 
53 

"58 

49 

.... 

48 
20 

13 

52 

32 
16 


M 

vd 
X 

5, 

_c 


04 

65 
63 
63 
60 

45 

59 
61 

49 
57 
45 

58 
73 
51 

73 
66 

69 

52 
73 
65 
71 

56 
63 
14 

58 

91 
75 


V 

£ 

a 
U 

62 

54 

66 

68 

58 

60 
61 

S3 
59 
48 

68 

63 
76 

55 
46 
53 
46 

47 
61 
42 
61 

41 

52 
46 

45 

100 
43 


u 
c . 

U 4-1 

£2 

63 
56 

59 
67 

54 

55 
62 

63 
64 
61 

65 
65 
74 
59 

68 

7^ 
70 

61 

69 
71 
69 

67 
69 
65 

57 

100 
91 


u 


A. — ExPRTS. WITH Ruminants — Cont. 

DRIED FODDERS— Continued. 

Hay fronTgrasses named: 
Barley, Maine 


40 


Blue joint {Calamagrostis canaden- 
sis), Maine 


45 


Cat-tail millet {Pennisetum sf>ica- 
tuiti) , North Carolina. ... - - 


46 
64 


Hungarian grass (Setaria 
Maine 


italtca), 
alepense). 


Johnson grass {Sorghufn h 
North Carolina 


39 

54 
50 

57 
56 
51 

50 
57 
67 
52 

5^ 
50 

46 

t 

70 
64 
62 

50 


Orchard grass {Dactylis glomerata), 
Maine and New York 


Redtop (Agrostis vulgaris), Maine.. 
Timothy (Fhleum pratense), average 

of all kinds, Maine and Utah 

ditto, in full bloom, Maine,. . . 

ditto, late cut, Maine 

Wild-oat grass {Datithonia spicata), 
Maine 


Witch-grass {Triticum repi 
Pasture grass, Pennsylvani 
Mi.xed grasses, New York a 
Hay from legumes named: 
Alfalfa, Colorado, and New 
Alsike clover ( Trifoliuttt /zj 
Maine 


'ns), Me . . 
a 


nd Penn. 

• York.. . 
vbridufn). 


Crimson clover {Tri/olium 
turn). North Carolina ... 


incarna- 


Red clover ( Tri/oliuvi pratettse), 
Maine and Wisconsin 


White c\o\tr (Trifolium repe}is),Mt. 

Cowpea vines, North Carolina 

Soja-bean vines, North Carolina 

MISCELLANEOUS FODDERS. 

Buttercup hay (Ranuncitlus ao-is). Me. 

Peanut-vine hay, North Carolina 

Sorghum bagasse. North Carolina 

White weed, white daisy {Chrysanthe- 
mum leucattthemum), Maine 

ROOTS. 

Sugar-beets Maine 


Mangel-wurzels, Maine. 







8 AGRICULTURE. 

AVERAGE DIGESTION COEFFICIENTS.— c^«^rK«^^. 



A. — ExPRTS. WITH Ruminants — Cont. 
ROOTS— Continued. 



Rutabagas, Maine 

Turnips (strap-leaf), Maine. 
Potatoes, Maine 



GKAiNS (fed whole or ground). 

Corn and cob meal, North Carolina. . . 
Corn meal. North Carolina and N. Y. 

Cotton seed, raw, North Carolina 

roasted, North Carolina. 
Pea meal, Maine 



BY-PRODUCTS. 

Brewers' grains, dried, Massachusetts. 

Corn cobs, Massachusetts 

Cotton-seed hulls, N. Car. and Texas.. 

meal, N. Car. and Wis — 

Gluten feed (Buffalo), Massachusetts.. 

meal, Maine 

Linseed meal, new process, Mass 

old process, Mass 

Malt sprouts, Wisconsin 

Wheat bran, Maine and Massachusetts; 

middlings, Maine and Mass — 

B.— Experiments with Swine. 

GRAINS AND BY-PRODUCTS. 



Barley, Minnesota 

Corn (maize) (whole kernel), Maine and 

Minnesota 

meal, Maine 

Corn and cob meal, Maine 

Peas, Minnesota 

Wheat shorts, Minnesota 

Wheat bran, Minnesota i 



^ X 

u 



43 



44 



24 



ti 



b«y 



u 



74 



8i 

79 
86 
76 

78 
73 36 
75 33 



t^ 



84 
97 
13 



91 
50 
77 
97 



91 



67 

62 
82 
82 
SO 

72 



FEEDING STUFFS. 9 

CLASSIFICATION OF CATTLE FOODS. (Lindsey.) 



Coarse Feeds. 




Concentrated Feeds. 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


Low in protein. 


Medium in 


Low in pro- 


Low in pro- 


High in pro- 


High in carbo- 


protein. 


tein. 


tein. 


tein. 


hydrates. 


Medium in 


High in car- 


High in car- 


Medium in 


50 to 65 per cent 


carbohy- 


bohydrates. 


bohydrates. 


car bohy- 


digestible. 


drates. 


85 to 95 per 


80 to 90 per 


drates. 




55 to 65 per 


cent digest- 


cent digest- 


80 to 90 per 




cent digest- 


ible. 


ible. 


cent digest- 




ible. 






ible. 


Hays, straws, 


Clovers, 


Carrots, pota- 


Wheat, rye. 


Bean and pea 


corn fodder, 


vetches, pea 


toes, sugar 


barley, oats, 


meals, glu- 


corn stover, 


and bean 


beets, man- 


Indian corn. 


ten feeds 


and silage. 


fodders and 


golds, tur- 




and meals, 




brans. 


nips. 




linseed 
meals and 








cotton -seed 








meal. 



CLASSIFICATION OF CONCENTRATED FEED 
STUFFS. 



Very rich in 

protein (above 40 

per cent). 



Dried blood. 
Meat scraps. 
Cotton-seed meal. 



Rich in protein 
(25-40 per cent). 



Gluten meal. 
Atlas meal. 
Linseed meal. 
Buckwheat mid- 
dlings. 
Buckwheat shorts 
Soja bean. 
Granogluten. 



Fairly rich in 


Poor in protein 


protein (12-25 P^J" 


(below 12 per 


cent). 


cent). 


Malt sprouts. 


Wheat. 


Dried brewers' 


Barley. 


grains. 


Oats. 


Gluten feed. 


Rye. 


Cow pea. 


Corn, 


Pea meal. 


Rice polish. 


Wheat shorts. 


Rice. 


Rye shorts. 


Hominy chops. 


Oats shorts. 


Germ meal. 


Wheat middlings. 




Wheat bran. 




Low-grade flour. 





10 



AGRICULTURE. 



FEEDING STANDARDS FOR FARM ANIMALS. 

(Wolff.) 
(Per day and per looo lbs. live weight.) 











OS 

_ f 


Nutritive 
(Digestible) 
Substances. 


1» 
> 

tn 


6 




6 

3 1- 


XI -a 










Steers at rest in stall 




lbs. 
17-5 

24.0 
26.0 

24.0 

20.0 
21 .0 
23.0 

20.0 
22.5 

27.0 
26.0 
25.0 

26.0 
25.0 

36.0 
31.0 
23-5 

22.0 

23-4 
24.0 
24.0 
24.0 

28.0 
25.0 
23.0 
22.5 
22.0 

42.0 
340 
3^-5 
27.0 
21.0 


lbs. 
0.7 

1.6 

2.4 

2.5 
1-5 

2-3 

1 .2 
1-5 

2.5 
3-0 
2.7 

3-0 

3-5 

5-0 
4.0 

2.7 

4.0 
3-2 
2.5 
2.0 
1.6 

3-2 

2.7 

2.1 

1-7 

1.4 

7-5 
5-0 
4-3 
3-4 

-5 


lbs. 
8.0 

"•3 
132 

12.5 

9-5 
10.4 
12.5 

10.3 
II. 4 

I5-0 
14.8 
14.8 

15.2 
14.4 


lbs. 
0.15 

0.30 
0.50 

0.40 

0.40 
0.60 
0.80 

20 
0.25 

0.50 
0.70 
0.60 

0.50 
0.60 


lbs. 

8.85 

13.20 
16.10 

15-40 
11.40 
12.70 
15.60 

11.70 
1315 

18.00 
18.50 
18.10 

18.70 
18.50 

32.50 
28.00 
20.20 

19.8 
17.7 
16.6 
15-4 
13-9 

19.6 
16.6 
14.0 
13.0 
12. 1 

37-5 
30.0 
28.0 
23-8 
18.7 


1:12 




Steers moderately worked.. ■ . 




1:7-5 

1:6.0 




Steers heavily worked 




3- 
4- 


Milch cows . 




1:5 4 


Horses lightly worked 




1:7.0 






1:7.0 




Horses heavily worked 




1:6.0 


5- 


Wool sheep, coarser breeds. . 
'* " finer breeds. .. . 




1:9.0 
1:8.0 


6 

7 


Fattening steers, ist period. 

" " 2d " . 

" 3d " . 

Fattening sheep, ist period 

" " 2d " 

Fattening swine, ist period 

" " 2d " . 

" 3d " . 

Growing cattle: 

Aver, live 

Age^ Months. per hei 
2-3 165 

3-6 330 

6-12 550 

12-18 770 

18-24 940 

. Growing sheep: 

e-6 62 

6-8 73 

8-11 84 

11-15 90 

15-20 95 

. Growing fat pigs: 

2-3 55 
3-S I 10 
S-6 137 
6-8 187 
8-12 275 




1:6.5 
1:5-5 

i;6.o 

1:55 
1:4-5 






... . . 


8 


27-5 
24.0 


1:5-5 
1:6.0 
1:6.5 

1:4.7 
1:5.0 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 

1:55 
1:55 
1:6.0 
1:7.0 
1:8.0 


9 

lO 


weight 

xd. 

lbs ... 

tt 

.< 
tt 
ti 

lbs... 

(k 

<( 
(. 

lbs.... 

44 ' ' 

44 
44 


13-8 
13-5 
13-5 
13.0 
12.0 

15-6 
13-3 
II. 4 
10.9 
10. /| 


2.0 

I.O 

0.6 
0.4 
0.3 

0.8 
0.6 

05 
0.4 

0.3 


ZI 


30.0 
25.0 

237 
20.4 
16.2 


1:4.0 
1:5-0 

1:5.5 
1:6.0 
1:6.5 



FEEDING STUFFS. 
RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. 



11 



Woods & Phelps 

Well 

Wolff 's German Stand'. 



Organic 

Matter. 




Digest 


ble. 




Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates 


Fat. 


Total. 


lbs. 
25.0 

24-5 
24.0 


lbs. 

2.5 
2.2 

2.5 


lbs. 
12.5 
13-3 
".5 


lbs. 
.65 
.7 
•4 


lbs. 

15.65 
16.2 

»5-4 



Nut. 
Ratio. 



1:56 
1:6.9 

1:5.4 



CALCULATION OF COMPONENTS OF FEED 
RATIONS. 

Let us suppose that we have at our disposal the following 
common feeding stuffs : Fodder corn, clover hay, and wheat 
bran, and that we want to know how much is required to keep a 
milch cow of looo lbs. live weight in good condition and to 
secure a maximum yield of milk. We will feed 14 lbs. of 
fodder corn, 6 lbs. of clover hay, and 10 lbs. of wheat bran. 
According to the table these quantities contain the following 
number of pounds of digestible matter : 



14 lbs. of field-cured fodder corn 

6 lbs. clover hay.. 

10 lbs. wheat bran 

Total 



Organic 
Matter. 



lbs. 

9-35 
4.71 
8.24 



22.30 



Digestible. 



Protein. 



lbs. 
.52 
•39 

1.26 



2.17 



Carbo- 
hydrates. 



lbs. 
5.66 
2.09 
4.41 



12.16 



Ether 
Extract. 



lbs. 

•«7 
.10 
.29 



.56 



This ration falls somewhat short of the feeding standard in 
total organic matter and digestible substances. To bring it 
nearer to the standard, we add a couple of pounds of some con- 
centrated feed. In selecting the foods and deciding the quan- 
tities to be given in each case, the market prices of the feeds 
must be considered. We will suppose that a lot of corn-meal is 
available in this case, and will add two pounds of this feed to 
the above ration. 



12 



AGRICULTURE. 








Organic 
Matter. 


Digestible. 


Nutri- 




Crude 
Protein 


Carbo- 
hydrates. 


Ether 
Extract 


tive 
Ratio. 


Ration as above 

2 lbs. of corn meal 


lbs. 
22.30 
1-75 


lbs. 

2.17 

.14 


lbs. 
12.16 
1.25 


lbs. 

.56 
.08 








Total 


24.05 

24-5 
24.0 


2.31 
2.2 

2.5 


13-41 

13-3 
12.5 


.64 

•7 
•4 


116.4 


Proposed American feeding 
ration for milch cows 

■Wolff's feeding standard for 
milch cows 


1:6.9 
i:s-4 





The ration now corresponds very well with the proposed 
American feeding ration; there is a small deficit of organic 
matter and of digestible fat ; but there is no necessity of trying 
to follow any standard ration blindly, as they are only intended 
to be approximate gauges which the farmer may use in estimat- 
ing the quantities of nutrients required by farm animals in 
order to do their best, cost and product both being considered. 

In constructing rations according to the above feeding 
standards, several points must be considered besides the chemi- 
cal composition and the digestibility of the feeding stuffs ; the 
standards cannot be followed directly without regard to bulk 
and other properties of the fodder ; the ration must not be 
too bulky, and still must contain a sufficient quantity of rough- 
age to keep up the rumination of the animals* in case of cows 
and sheep, and to secure a healthy condition of the animals 
generally. The local market prices of cattle foods are of the 
greatest importance in determining which foods to buy ; the 
conditions in the different sections of our great continent differ 
so greatly in this respect that no generalizations can be made. 
Generally speaking, nitrogenous concentrated feeds are the 
cheapest feeds in the South and the East, and flour-mill, 
brewery, and starch-factory refuse feeds the cheapest in the 
Northwest. 



FEEDING STUFFS. 13 

PRACTICAL. RATIONS FOR DAIRY COWS. 

Fed by 16 American Dairymen Producing 325 lbs. of 
Butter or more per Cow per Year.* 

1. Colorado. — 30 lbs. silage, 10 lbs. alfalfa hay, 10 lbs. clover 
hay, 5 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. corn meal. 

2. Connecticut. — 35 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 3 lbs. wheat 
bran, 3 lbs. corn and cob meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. 
Chicago gluten meal. 

3. Illinois. — 7I lbs. clover hay, 7^ lbs. timothy hay, 12 lbs. 
corn and cob-meal, 8 lbs. bran, i\ lbs. linseed meal, i^ lbs. 
cotton-seed meal. 

4. New Jersey. — 24 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. 
wheat bran, 4 lbs. oats, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

5. New York. — 20 lbs. hay, 2 lbs. wheat bran, 2 lbs. cotton- 
seed meal, 2 lbs. hominy meal. 

6. New York. — 12 lbs. timothy hay, i lb. wheat bran, i lb. 
middlings, 2 lbs. corn meal, 2 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 40 lbs. 
skim-milk. 

7. Nezu York. — 42 lbs. corn silage, 2\ lbs. clover hay, 2\ lbs. 
timothy hay, 8 lbs. corn and cob meal, 14 lbs. dried brewers' 
grains. 

8. North Carolina. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 8 lbs. fodder corn, 
3 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. wheat bran, i lb. cotton-seed meal. 

9. Pennsylvania. — 24 lbs. corn fodder, 5.1 lb. wheat bran, 
5.1 lbs. corn meal, 3 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2 lbs. oil meal. 

10. Pennsylvania. — 10 lbs. corn fodder, 6 lbs. hay, 2>h lbs. 
wheat bran, i| lbs. cotton-seed meal, i^ lbs. oil meal, 2^ lbs. 
corn meal. 

11. Texas. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 13^ lbs. sorghum hay, 1.3 lbs. 
corn meal, 2.6 lbs. cotton-seed meal, 2.2 lbs. cotton-seed, 1.3 lbs. 
wheat bran. 

12. Vertnont. — 30 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. hay, 4.2 lbs. corn 
meal, 4.2 lbs. wheat bran, .8 lb. linseed meal. 

13. West Virginia. — 48 lbs. corn silage, 2^ lbs. corn and cob 
meal, i\, lbs. ground wheat, 2\ lbs, oats, 2\ lbs. barley meal. 



* See WoU, "One Hundred American Rations for Dairy Cows," Bul- 
letin No. 38, Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 



14 



AGRICULTUEE. 



14. Wisconsin. — 26 lbs. corn silage, 10 lbs. clover hay, 5 lbs, 
timothy hay, 8 lbs. wheat middlings, i^ lbs. oil meal. 

15. Wisconsin. — 50 lbs. corn silage, 5 lbs. sheaf oats, 5 lbs. 
corn fodder, i lb. clover hay, i lb. millet, 2.7 lbs. cotton-seed 
meal, 1.3 lbs. oil meal, 6 lbs. wheat bran. 

16. Canada. — 40 lbs. corn silage, 7^ lbs. clover hay, 3 lbs. 
straw, li lbs. oats, i\ lbs. barley, i^ lbs. pea meal, 3 lbs. wheat 
bran, i lb. cotton-seed meal. 

The preceding rations contain approximately the following 
amounts of nutrients, calculated for 1000 lbs. live weight : 





Organic 


Digestible. 


tritive 


No. 








INU 


Matter. 




Carbo- 
hydrates. 




R 


atio. 






Protein. 


Fat. 


Total. 






lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 1 


bs. 


I 


31.09 


2.70 


15-78 


.80 


19.28 I 


6.5 


2 


25.70 


2.69 


13.96 


•97 


17.62 I 


6.0 


3 


22.09 


2.37 


12.06 


.75 


15.18 I 


5.8 


4 


19.41 


2.06 


11.71 


.87 


14.64 I 


6-5 


5 


26.19 


2.36 


13-78 


•79 


16.93 1 


6.6 


6 


25-73 


3-50 


14.05 


1.12 


18.67 I 


4-7 


7 


31-30 


3-37 


16.31 


I-3I 


20.99 I 


5>7 


8 


20.38 


1.79 


11.98 


.80 


14-57 I 


7-7 


9 


26.52 


2.53 


15-74 


.90 


19.17 I 


7.0 


10 


20.05 


2.31 


11.00 


.72 


14-03 I 


5-4 


II 


26.58 


2.21 


12.31 


1.30 


15.82 I 


6.9 


12 


24.23 


1.86 


14.03 


-75 


16.64 I 


8.4 


n 


22.37 


1.54 


14-15 


.72 


16.41 I 


10.2 


>4 


31.00 


3-01 


16.02 


.87 


19-90 I 


6.0 


IS 


23-79 


2-73 


12.46 


•99 


16.18 1 


5-4 


16 


22.96 


3.08 


12.17 


•71 


14.96 I 


6.6 



FEEDING STUFFS. 



15 



WEIGHT OF CONCENTRATED FEEDING STUFFS. 

(Alvokd.) 



Wheat, whole 

Cracked corn 

Gluten meal 

Cotton-seed meal . 

Corn meal 

Corn and cob meal 
Wheat middlings. . 

Oats, whole 

Ground oats 

Wheat bran 



Half Bushel 
Weighs 


One Quart 


Weighs 




Pounds. 


Pounds, Ounces = 


Pounds. 


30 


r 14 


= 


1.88 


28 


I 12 


^ 




7S 


26 


I 8 


= 




50 


25i 


I 9 


= 




56 


23* 


I 7 


= 




43 


22 


I 6 


= 




3a 


18 


I 2 


= 




13 


16 


I 


= 




00 


12 


12 


= 




75 


10 


ID 


=: 




f'3 



FOOD REQUIREMENTS OF FARM ANIMALS. 

It is generally assumed in comparing the food require- 
ments of the different classes of farm animals that one cow 
at pasture will eat as much, or seven-tenths as much, daily 
as a full-grown horse, or as much as two yearling colts, 
heifers, or young bulls, or as three to five calves, or four 
colts taken from the mare, or ten to twelve sheep, or as 
twelve to twenty three-months-old lambs, or as four to five 
swine. It may be figured that the quantity of pasture grass 
eaten by a cow per day, which of course will vary with the 
season and the condition of the pasture, will equal 25-30 lbs. 
of good meadow hay or 40 lbs. hay of inferior quality. 



COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CATTLE FOODS. 

Comparing concentrated foods with coarse feeds, one 
pound of the former may be considered a food unit) the 
quantity of grass eaten by one cow at pasture during one 
day is assumed equivalent to 12 to 13 food units during 
the early part of the summer, and to 4 food units in the 
late fall, 10 units being considered an average figure. 

The following quantities of different feeding stuffs are 
considered approximately equivalent, as determined by 
European, largely Danish, feeding experience (Schroll): 



16 



AGRICULTURE. 



I lb. concentrated feed (cereals, mill-refuse feeds, oil 
meals, etc.) = 2^ to 3 lbs. of good meadow hay = 4 lbs. of 
poorer quality hay = 10 lbs. rutabagas = 12^ lbs. turnips 
= 4 lbs. potatoes = 10 lbs. green fodder = 6 lbs. buttermilk 
= 6 lbs. skim-milk = 12 lbs. whey = i lb. new milk. 

COMPARATIVE VALUE OF CATTLE FOODS. 

(H^ECKER.) 

The following table is based upon the percentages of di- 
gestible protein in different feed stuffs, comparison of cost 
being made with wheat bran as a basis for grain, and timothy 
hay for coarse fodders. The figures given show only approx- 
imately the comparative value of the different food stuffs, as 
the digestible protein content, and not the total digestible 
matter of each food was considered in calculating the 
values. Since, however, protein is the most important 
component of foods bought, carbohydrates being, as a rule, 
produced in abundant quantities in the crops raised on the 
farm, the data obtained by this method of calculation may 
serve as a guide in estimating the comparative money 
value of cattle foods offered for sale. 



Feed Stuffs. 



Barley 

Indian corn 

Corn and cob meal 

Millet seed 

Oats , 

Peas 

Rye 

Wheat shorts , 

Wheat 

Cotton-seed meal. . 
Linseed meal 



Value per Ton or Bushel when 
Wheat Bran is worth 



$9.00 $10.00 $12, 



$0.16 
0.18 
0.16 
0.20 

O.IO 

0.40 
0.22 
7.20 
0.24 

23.14 
19.86 



$0.18 
0.21 

0.18 

0.22 
0.12 

0.47 

0.24 

8.00 

0.25 

25.60 



.00 



!tS0.22 
0.24 
0.22 
0.26 
0.14 
0.56 
0.28 
9.60 
0.30 
30.72 
26.50 



$16.00 $20.00 



$0.30 
0.32 
0.30 

0.34 
0.18 
0.74 
0.38 

12.80 
0.40 

40.96 

35-32 



80.36 
0.42 
0.36 
0.44 
0.24 
0.94 
0.48 

16.00 
0.50 

51.20 

44.16 



Feed Stuffs. 



Clover hay, red 

Corn stover 

Fodder corn 

Prairie hay (upland) 
Prairie hay (mixed). 
Sedge grass 



Value per Ton when Timothy is worth 



84-50 


$6.00 


88.00 


810.00 


$10.06 


813.41 


$17.88 


$22.33 


2.65 


3-53 


4.70 


6.88 


3-44 


4-59 


6. 12 


7-65 


4-63 


6.17 


8.23 


10.29 


4 50 


6.00 


8.00 


10.00 


4-50 


6.00 


8.00 


10.00 



* 



FEEDING STUFFS, 



1' 



PRICES OF CEREALS PP]R BUSHELi AND PER 

TON. 



Name. 


4-1 "S 


Factor. 


O-X! 


c-f- 




Weig 
per 
Bu 




Price 

per 

(2000 




lbs. 


$ 


$ 


Wheat . 


6o 


33-3 


.40 
•45 
•50 
.60 


i3^33 
15.00 
16.67 
20.00 




• 




•75 
1.00 


25.00 
33^33 


Corn . . . 


56 


35-7 


.30 
•35 
.40 

•45 
.50 


10.71 
12.50 
14.28 
16.06 
17.85 



Name. 



Oats. 



Rye ... 
Barley. 



Weight 
per 
liushel. 



u 


Price per 
Bushel. 


lbs. 




$ 


32 


62.5 


.18 
20 
•25 
•30 

•35 
.50 


56 


35^7 


.40 


48 


41.7 


•50 
.40 

•50 
.60 



$ 

11.25 
12.50 
15 ^63 

18.75 

21.90 

3i^25 
14 28 

17-85 
16.68 
20.83 
25.02 



VALUATION OF FEEDING STUFFS. 

The commercial value of protein, fat, and carbohydrates 
in concentrated feeding stuffs has been calculated from the 
average composition and market price of common feeding 
stuffs as follows: 



^-Cost of one pound of^ 
Protein. Fat. Carbohydrates. 



In Germany. .. (1890) 3: 2: 

' Connecticut (1888) 1.6 cts. 4.2 cts. 

" (1890) 1.4 2.9 

* Wisconsin. . (1891) 1.5 3.6 

' Indiana. . . . (1891) i.o 2.75 

' Minnesota.. (1893)3.1 3.1 



I (K6nig, Wolff.) 

.96 cts. (Jenkins.) 

r^4 

.5 (Woll.) 

.63 (Huston.) 

.24 (Hays.) 



18 AGRICULTURE. 



II. FARM ANIMALS. 



CHARACTERISTICS OF BREEDS OF LiIVE 
STOCK. 

By Prof. J. A. Craig, of the Wisconsin Agricultural Experiment Station. 

I. Light Horses. 

The Thoroughbred. — Leading characteristics: running speed 
(Salvator, 1:35^, holds the world's mile record), quality, stam- 
ina, and ambition. Common colors : brown, bay, chestnut. 
Distinctive features : refined appearance, lengthy neck, deep 
chest, long body, straight croup, long thighs and pasterns, 
dense bone, firm muscle, active temperament, rangy type 
standing 16 hands. Most common defects : light bodies, 
lengthy pasterns, long legs, irritable temperament. Bred 
principally for racing, which has given them endurance and 
spirit. They are suited for mating with mares weighing 11 to 
12 cwt., with the object of producing strong drivers or stylish 
carriage and saddle horses. 

The American Trotter. — Chief characteristics : speed at the 
trotting gait. World's record for one mile against time is that 
of Alix, 2:o3f. The type of the leading campaigners is that 
towards which the trotter is tending; it is that of a horse re- 
quired to have the endurance, ambition, and conformation to 
maintain trotting speed. Most general features: intelligent 
heads, light necks, low deep chests, oblique shoulders, long 
forearm, short cannons, round body rising slightly over loin, 
long croup and thighs, low hocks. Most common defects : 
undersize, deficiency in style, finish, and substance. Sphere : 
9oach or carriage horses, roadsters, and trotters. 



FARM AITIMALS. 19 

Cleveland Bay. — Uniform in color, being bay with black 
points. They stand at least i6 hands and are horses of larger 
size and more power than those of most other breeds of light 
horses. Rough joints, coarse bone, and deficiency in actior are 
their most common defects. Their size, power, and evenness 
of disposition adapt them for general work on light farms, 
but owing to the defects mentioned they are not as popular for 
breeding road and carriage horses as those of other breeds. 

French Coach. — Smooth, symmetrical, and generally of fine 
quality ; very graceful in movement, with high knee-action and 
good back-action. Heads intelligent looking ; necks graceful, 
bodies snugly ribbed, and quarters muscular. As a rule, they 
are striking in appearance, being upstanding and high-headed. 
Common colors : bay, brown, and black. Best suited for 
breeding coach-horses with moderately fast and graceful action. 
Defects : coarseness and lack of prepotency in the stallions due 
to their mixed breeding. 

Hackney. — The typical hackney is a horse of extreme 
smoothness, with gracefully curved outlines. The head is 
light, neck muscular and curved, but free from heaviness ; 
shoulders smooth and laid well back ; body circular, compact, 
short ; hips smooth ; quarters plump with muscle ; legs short, 
with tendons clearly defined. Their action is noted for its grace- 
fulness and stylishness, being very high in the forelegs, and the 
hock movement is regular. Common colors : bay and brown. 
They are usually about 15.3 hands. Best suited for production 
of high-stepping cab and coach horses for city driving. 

II. Heavy Horses. 

Clydesdale. — Usual colors: bay, brown, black, or chestnut with 
white markings. The head is intelligent in features, but some- 
times out of proportion with the other parts. Shoulder excep- 
tionally good ; being sloping, it gives them a free, easy, and 
long stride in the walk or trot ; arm well-muscled, and legs 
clean and flat, with the fine and long feather springing from 
the edge ; pasterns sloping, easing the feet from concussion,* 



20 AGRICULTURE. 

feet large and durable. The croup is muscular and the quarters 
especially heavily-muscled. Their combination of weight, 
quality, and action is exceptional in draught-horses. 

Shire. — The best type is low, broad, and stout. They are 
heavily built, muscular, with heavy bone and slow movement. 
The shoulder is usually too upright, making the action too 
short and stilted. The body is of large girth, deep and 
strongly coupled, with broad, short back and heavily-muscled 
quarters. Deficiencies : lack of quality, sluggish temperament, 
and limited action. In general they are heavier than the 
Clydesdale, though there is little difference between representa- 
tive animals. The best type is suitable for breeding the 
heaviest class of draught-horses adapted to slow work demand- 
ing strength and heavy weight. 

Percheron. — Types : the original gray in color, and the 
modern of black color. Most peculiar characteristics of the 
former were their action, style, endurance, and strength. They 
had intelligent heads, prominent chests, round bodies, large 
bone, inclined to roundness. The modern type is shorter- 
legged, more compact and stouter, but lacking the size of the 
original. The Percheron's excellencies are seen in their active 
temperament, intelligent heads, crested neck, deep body, and 
wide croup. Their deficiencies appear in defective legs, being 
light or round, straight pasterns, feet narrow at the hoof, heads 
and quarters lacking nmscle. Best type adapted for breeding 
energetic, quick-gaited, strong horses suited for draught work 
of light nature. 

Suffolk.— Color uniform, being some shade of chestnut. 
They are low-set, short-legged, deep-bodied, muscular horses, 
with clean bone and durable feet ; docile, easy keepers, and 
steady when working. General deficiency: a lack of weight due 
to their smaller size in comparison with other draught-horses. 
Suited for general farm labor ; they are not the highest-priced 
horses on the market owing to the demand for heavier weights. 



FARM ANIMALS. 21 

III. Beef Cattle.* 

Short-horns. — The three family types are: Bates, Booth, and 
Cruikshank. Bates, noted for style, fine heads, clean necks, 
straight level backs, light bone, and combination of milk and 
beefing qualities. Booths are especially excellent in girth, wide 
backs, lengthy quarters, deep flesh, and beefing qualities, though 
lacking in finish and style. Crtnkshanks, noted for scale ; low, 
broad, deep forms, heavy flesh, and mossy coats. The short- 
horn breed is specially noted for beef form, early maturity, and 
thrift under a variety of conditions. Their weakness in con- 
stitution and sterility is traceable to in-and-in breeding and 
artificial treatment. Their chief utility is to give beef form, 
quality, and rapid fattening tendencies to grades for stall feed- 
ing. Some families possess unequalled combination of beefing 
and milking qualities. 

Aberdeen Angtis. — Characteristic color, black. Head, 
hornless ; neck free from loose skin, exceptionally good 
shoulder-vein ; shoulder oblique, fitting close to body ; ribs 
deep, very circular ; hips moderately far apart, smoothly 
curved ; rump long, level, smooth ; thighs muscular, twist low 
and full, quarters long and rounded. Type : cylindrical, dis- 
tinguished for smoothness, symmetry and quality ; bone light, 
hide mellow, and coated with fine black hair. They are pre- 
potent and prolific. Chief utility, production of beef of high 
quality. 

Hereford. — Most popular color, dark claret or cherry, with 
white face, belly, switch, and small strip of white on neck and 
over shoulder. Type: low-set and broad; heavy in fore- 
quarters, with low heads ; full, deep chest ; hanging dewlap, 
level lack, wide thick loin, full quarters and thin thighs. 
Worst deficiencies, looseness in build and rough, coarse bone. 
They are strong-constitutioned, active rangers, prepotent and 
long-lived. Being active, hardy, and good feeders they make 
good grazing cattle, and on that account have been popular on 
ranches. 

Galloway. — Color black, no white admissible, except on 

* For description of breeds of dairy cattle, see Part II, Dairying. 



22 AGRICULTURE. 

udder or below underline. Type: thick, close to ground, and 
symmetrical ; hair long, wavy, and thick ; head large, horn- 
less, with no scurs ; neck strong, giving a burly appearance 
to forequarters ; shoulders snug, legs short and heavy, barrel 
round, tight-ribbed ; quarter long and smooth ; flesh even over 
all parts; hardiness and strength of constitution, strong feat- 
ures. Require more time to mature and yield larger percentage 
of offal than most other breeds. They are liked as ranch 
cattle, as they are hardy, hornless, and yield excellent beef and 
robes. 

IV. Fine-wooled Sheep. 

Merino. — The two types include those wrinkled and those 
smooth in body. They are chiefly noted for the heavy weights 
of fine wool that they shear. The fleece is dense, even, ex- 
tending over all regions. The wool is bright, soft, fine, lustrous, 
and pure. They are hardy and strong in constitution, of a quiet 
disposition, and do well in large flocks. 

V. Mutton Sheep. 

Southdown. — Symmetrical, compact, close to the ground, and 
of fine quality ; head medium size, hornless ; forehead and 
face covered with wool, ears small, face brown or gray tint, 
neck short, breast broad, back and loin wide and straight, body 
deep, hips wide, twist full, fleece dense, and medium in length 
and fineness. The mutton is of high quality, and lambs mature 
early. They represent an exceptional combination of wool and 
mutton of fine quality. 

Shropshire. — Face and legs dark brown in color. They are 
symmetrical and stylish. Rams are required to weigh 225 lbs. 
in full flesh, and ewes 175 lbs. Head short, cov^ered with wool, 
hornless; neck well attached, full; body circular, round ribbed; 
quarters lengthy, inclined to narrowness and slackness. The 
fleece dense, fibre strong, about three and one half inches in 
length. The ewes are prolific and kind nurses. They combine 
quality and quantity of wool and mutton in a high degree, and 
are adapted to conditions of general farming and rolling land. 

Hampshire. — Color of face dark brown or black; head large, 
nose prominent, neck regular, taper from head to shoulder; 



FARM ANIMALS. 23 

strong-boned ana lengthy. Especially noted for early develop- 
ment of lambs. They are vigorous and prepotent. The wool 
.is short, dense, strong, and slightly coarse. 

Suffolk. — Faces and legs deep black color. They are large 
sheep when mature ; lengthy and straight in form. Noted 
chiefly for prolificness and good milking and nursing qualities. 
A large percentage of lambs are reared in flocks of this breed; 
wool medium in quality and length. 

Oxford. — Face either brown or gray, and lengthy. When 
mature they are the heaviest of the Down breeds, being larger in 
size and heavier in bone. Their fleece is also heavier and the 
fibre longer, coarser, and more open than most others. Squarer 
in form than the Shropshires, and not so closely covered with 
wool. Adapted to strong land; respond readily to high feeding. 

Leicester. — Face bare and pure white, body square, straight, 
forequarters exceptionally full, hindquarters rounded slightly. 
Offal is light, bone fine, but fat too plentiful. The Border 
type is stronger boned, heavier, and more vigorous than the 
English. The Leicester has been extensively used for crossing 
on grades. Wool lustrous, five or six inches long, soft, but 
too frequently open and absent on the belly. 

Cotswold. — Face white or slightly mixed with gray. Form 
large, square, upstanding, and stylish. A tuft of wool grows 
from forehead; fleece open, long, and heavily yielding. Body 
long, level, and wide. The gray-faced strain is considered 
hardier than the white-faced. The popularity of the breed lies 
in the large yield of wool and of mutton, though the quality of 
both is deficient. 

Lincoln. — The largest of the long-wooled breeds. The wool 
is long and coarse, and especially lustrous. Square in form 
and, when mature, very heavy. The mutton lacks quality. 

Cheviot. — Face bare, white, hornless; wool fine, and the 
fleece dense and even. Mutton agreeably flavored and fine- 
grained. They are hardy, active, prolific, and the lambs come 
active. They clip about four pounds of fine wool. Adapted to 
rough and high pasturage. 

Dorset. — Face white ; rams and ewes horned. Type : long, 
round-bodied, and compactly built. Wool medium in length, 
fineness, and weight; average clip 6 pounds. Chief character- 



24 AGRICULTURE. 

istics: prolificness, hardiness, and breeding early, so as to drop 
lambs in winter. 

Highland. — Rams and ewes horned, face and legs black and 
white. Low and blocky in type ; fleece long, coarse. Their 
mutton has a superior flavor. Mountain breed hardy, active, 
and very strong of constitution. 

VI. Swine. 

BerksMre. — Color black, white on face, feet, tip of tail. Face 
short, dished; ears sharp-pointed, erect; jaws full, back broad, 
straight, full over shoulder ; loin thick, level ; hams excep- 
tionally full, legs short, strong, and straight. Sows prolific, 
good nurses. Active and vigorous in temperament. 

Poland-China. — Color dark, spotted, or black; head small, 
slightly dished; ears drooping, girth full, ribs well sprung, deep; 
hindquarters lengthy, though inclined to be drooping. They 
fatten readily, reach heavy weights, and are quiet-dispositioned. 

Yorkshire. — White in color; separated into large, middle, and 
small varieties. The first-mentioned, are strong-boned, long- 
bodied, and deep-sided, and have mixed meat; middle or im- 
proved type, lighter in weight and bone, with smaller quantity 
of offal ; small variety, quick in maturing and compact in 
form. 

Chester- White. — White in color, strong-boned, vigorous, and 
attain to very heavy weights, though slow in maturing. Sows 
of good disposition and breeding qualities. 

Duroc-Jerseys. — Deep, cherry red in color, large size, good 
breeders, and liked in Southern countries because of ability to 
withstand heat. 

Victoria. — White in color with occasional black spots on skin; 
head small, face slightly dished ; skin free from scurf ; flesh 
of good quality and evenly laid over body. Yearling boars 
should weigh not less than 300 lbs. 

Tamworth. — Red or dark brown color ; snout very long, 
body narrow, exceptionally deep and long in sides. Their 
form and the mixture of fat and lean in their flesh make them 
a special bacon hog. 

Essex. — Color black; type : small, compact, early mavUring, 
and yielding a large percentage of edible meat. 



FARM ANIMALS. 25 

FEEDING AND GENERAL. CARE OF POULTRY. 

By Prof. VVm. P. Wheeler, of N. Y. (Geneva) Experiment Station. 

Of the kinds of land birds and of water fowls under do- 
mestication the common "barnyard" fowls, of one general 
type, but of countless individual variations, and their thor- 
oughbred varieties, are those usually thought of when the 
subject of poultry is mentioned, and these are the fowls of 
most general practical interest. It is remarkable that the 
common fowl, although so widely bred, and for so long, in 
Europe and America has no distinctive English name. 

Ducks» turkeys, and geese constitute greater or smaller 
portions of the market poultry according to the particular 
locality and season, but the common fowl, besides produc- 
ing most of the table poultry, is almost alone called upon 
for the egg supply. 

The relative prices of eggs and market poultry, the 
proximity of markets, as well as the prices of foods, deter- 
mine the relative profit in keeping larger or smaller breeds, 
even with eggs as the special object. The meat value of 
every fowl is of consideration sooner or later, and while 
the smaller hens will produce eggs cheaper, the greater 
net profit from hatching to market per hen may be with 
the larger breed. 

Most of the thoroughbred varieties have their character- 
istics fairly established, so that it is better business policy 
to employ them rather than the uncertain mongrels, which, 
besides their unknown capabilities, are not less likely to 
suffer from long and careless inbreeding. The fancier who 
is fitted by judgment and experience to inbreed his stock 
closely will know how far he can go with safety; but one 
who finds it necessary to inquire about the advisability of 
inbreeding had better not attempt any. 

Among the breeds that lay white-shelled eggs. Ham- 
burgs, when of vigorous ancestry, probably are the most 
prolific. They certainly are exceptional layers, although 
the size of the egg is small. The Hamburg varieties pos- 
sess in unusual degree the thoroughbred characteristics. 
Occasional complaints have been made in recent years con- 
cerning their stamina. 



26 AGRICULTURE. 

For egg production the Leghorns are typical fowls, and 
where white-shelled eggs are wanted the Leghorn varieties 
are more widely kept than any others. 

The Minorcas, other members of the Mediterranean class, 
excel the Leghorns in size of eggs, but do not equal them 
in number. 

Some strains and varieties of Pit Games are not far from 
the Leghorn in prolificacy. 

Of the French breeds the Houdan is most widely bred 
in this country, and for such an excellent table fowl, is an 
exceptional layer of large white eggs. 

The Polish, often wonderful layers, have sometimes 
suffered in vigor because of their beauty, which admirers 
hesitate to risk marring by introduction of distant blood. 

Of the Asiatics, which lay brown-shelled eggs, the Lang- 
shan is high in favor with practical poultrymen. The 
Brahma, the largest of the thoroughbreds, also ranks high 
and lays large eggs. Those strains, however, bred for 
early laying are usually much inferior in size to the stand- 
ard t)irds. The Cochin varieties are more particularly the 
pride of the fancier than of the farmer. 

Of the American breeds the Plymouth Rock is un- 
doubtedly the most popular. Its type of plumage pos- 
sesses an unusual strength, even in blood much diluted, 
and faint reflections of the blue barring are seen in very 
distant relatives of the thoroughbred. The perfect mark- 
ings of the showroom bird are, however, quickly lost. The 
American breeds lay brown-shelled eggs. Different flocks 
vary as much as the breeds or varieties in productiveness. 

Many other breeds and varieties recognized by the 
American Poultry Association are of considerable economic 
value, but are less commonly kept. 

In feeding most farm animals the usual purpose is only 
to secure meat, wool, milk, or work, and not always is con- 
sideration necessarily given to the breeding condition and 
the breeding season. When poultry is kept for other than 
fancy purposes, the life of the individual fowl is so short 
that there is not only an annual necessity of growing 
young birds with several more or less complete sets of 



FARM ANIMALS. 27 

plumage, but egg production virtually implies a continual 
breeding condition, for the ultimate constituents of the egg 
are, with the exception of the amount obtained from the 
air, all that are combined in the living chick. 

The body of a Leghorn pullet, about nine months old, in 
active laying, contains about 55.4 per cent of water, 21.2 
per cent of different nitrogenous constituents, 18.0 per 
cent of fat, 3.0 per cent of ash or mineral matter, and 2.0 
per cent of other substances, including also a little water 
lost in manipulation. Leghorn hens almost two years old 
and laying, showed an average composition of 55.7 per 
cent water, 21.6 per cent nitrogenous matter, 17.0 per cent 
of fat, 3.8 per cent ash constituents, and 1.7 per cent other 
substances. The body of a mature capon is composed of 
about 41.6 per cent of water, 19.4 per cent nitrogenous 
matter, 33.9 per cent fat, 3.7 per cent ash, and 1.4 per cent 
other substances. 

Notwithstanding the fact that the problem of poultry 
feeding is much more complex than that of feeding most 
other farm stock, fewer carefully collected data are avail- 
able in formulating feeding standards for poultry than for 
cattle. The following rations for laying hens are, how- 
ever, near the average of those that have given best 
results. They are stated at the rate per 1000 lbs. live 
weight, to compare with the standards which have been 
used in feeding other animals. 

One thousand pounds live weight of laying hens, of 
about three pounds average weight, require from 65 to 70 
pounds of total food, less bulky than that for the cow, or 
about 52 pounds water-free food, per day, containing about 
9 pounds digestible protein, 20 pounds digestible nitrogen- 
free extract and fiber, and 4 pounds of fat. From this ra- 
tion the hens would produce generally from 16 to 31 pounds 
of eggs containing from 5.2 lbs. to 9.8 lbs. dry matter, one 
pound of eggs being produced from about 3.4 lbs. water- 
free food, one pound of dry matter of eggs for each 8.8 lbs. 
water-free food. 

For one thousand pounds live weight of hens of about 
six pounds average weight, there should be fed from 40 to 



28 AGRICULTURE. 

50 lbs. of food per day, containing about 34 pounds of 
water-free food. There should be in this about 6 pounds 
of digestible protein, 14 pounds of digestible nitrogen-free 
extract and fiber, and 2 pounds of digestible fat. 

Per hen the amount of food required per day varies 
according to the size and somewhat with the season. A 
smaller hen will eat more in proportion to live weight than 
a larger one. The difference in amount of food consumed 
by larger and smaller hens is less when laying than at other 
times, when enough for maintenance only need be eaten. 

A Cochin or Brahma hen when laying requires about 4^ 
ounces of food per day, of which 3J ounces is water-free 
food. A hen of Leghorn size when laying requires about 3^ 
ounces of total food, or 2| ounces of water-free food, per day. 

A much larger amount of food in proportion to the live 
weight is required by the chicks than by the older fowls. 
The amount of water-free food required for every one 
hundred pounds live weight fed is 10.6 lbs. at about one 
pound average weight; at two pounds 7.5 lbs.; at three 
pounds 6.4 lbs; at four pounds 5.5 lbs.; at five pounds 5.3 
lbs.; at six pounds 4.9 lbs.; at seven pounds 4.7 lbs.; at 
eight pounds 4 lbs.; at nine pounds 3.3 lbs.; at ten pounds 
average live weight 3.2 lbs. The amounts of fresh food 
equivalent to these weights would be correspondingly 
greater. These are the amounts taken by growing fowls 
which normally attain to the higher weights given, and 
which are still immature and growing rapidly when at five 
and six pounds average weight. 

For young chicks the nutritive ratio of the ration fed 
can be somewhat narrower than those given for laying 
hens, and for fattening the ration can have a very much 
wider ratio, although only for short periods. 

For one hundred hens about 16 quarts of clean water 
per day is required, especially in dry hot weather. In 
each dozen eggs there is about a pint of water. 

A Variety of Food is Essential. 

Young hens, especially of the better laying breeds, when 
in full laying, can be freely fed all they will readily eat, bu: 



FARM ANIMALS. 



29 



older hens and the young ones when not laying should be 
fed only enough to keep them eager for food. 

Salt should be fed mixed with the food, but not large 
coarse crystals. One ounce of salt per day for one hun- 
dred hens is a good proportion. 

Animal food and green or succulent vegetable food, as 
well as grain, should always be fed to hens that are con- 
fined. 

Some form of grit should be liberally supplied. 

A largely grain ration will not contain the lime required 
by laying hens, and oyster-shells or some other form of 
carbonate of lime will supply this deficiency. 

A grass run is better than any substitute in summer, and 
enough hens to kill the grass should never be kept in a 
run. 

Common fowls, especially laying hens, must be kept in 
moderately small flocks. Where large numbers are kept, 
they should be divided in small lots in separate pens and 
yards. Ten to twenty in a pen give better results than 
larger numbers. The laying hens should be kept sepa- 
rated from those not laying. 

Hens will not always moult early enough to resume lay- 
ing before midwinter. Chicks should be hatched in March 
and April if eggs are to be obtained from the pullets in 
November. Asiatics, to begin laying in the fall, should 
be hatched in February and March. 

The best results in egg production cannot be secured 
where the average space of open run available per hen is 
much less than loo square feet. The average floor-space 
per hen indoors should be about 20 square feet. 

Exercise is of the utmost importance, especially for lay- 
ing and breeding stock, and a good way to assure this in 
winter-time is to scatter the grain in straw or any clean 
and dry substitute. 

Dampness is fatal, and dry warm houses free from 
draughts are essential in winter. The floors should be of 
dry earth or fine gravel, or wooden floors covered with 
straw or dry sand. The houses should be warm enough 
to prevent freezing of water, but should not be warmed by 
heating apparatus more than will insure against freezing. 



30 



AGRICULTURE. 



SYNOPSIS OF BREEDS OF POULTRY. 

(M. Lemoine.) 



Breeds. 



Andalusian 

Brahma (lig^ht) 

Cochin (buff) 

Creve Coeur 

Dorking (silver gray) 

(dark) 

Game 

Hamburgs (silver spangled) . . 
" (golden pencilled) 

Houdan 

La Fleche 

Langshan 

Leghorn (brow^n) 

Minorca (black) 

Plymouth Rock. . .. 

Scotch Gray 

Wyandottes 



B 
•a 3 









150 
120 

"5 
122 
130 
130 
100. 24 



oz. 

29I4 

281^ 

24 

33 
27I4 



239 
225 

125 
140 

"5 

190 
180 
120 
140 
140 



M 
26 

29J^ 

27 

22 
281^ 

27H 

29 

25 



X 



lbs. 

5- 6 
8-10 
8-10 
8-9 
7-10 

6- 9 

5- 6 

4- 5 
3J^-4 

6- 7 
6-7 
7-10 

5- 6 
5^-7 

6- 7^ 
6 

5^-7 






lb. oz. 

3 I 

4 II 
4 

4 
5 
5 
3 



9 

9H 



o rt 

fa's 



lb. oz. 
2 IS 



15^ 

3^ 

7 

sM 

14M 5 
isJi 2 



4H 



4% 
Ul4 
14 
12 

7% 

7% 
7^ 

9% 

loM 



"S §'^ 

oz. 

9^ 
17^ 

7^ 



4^ 
4M 
4M 
6% 
6% 
7^ 
4% 



HEREDITY. 

By Prof. Thos. Shaw, of Minnesota Experiment Station. 

Heredity in breeding relates to transmission. It is 
doubtless governed by fixed laws, but many of these are 
as yet imperfectly understood. It may be defined as the 
outcome of the operation of that law whereby properties 
and qualities of like kind with those of the parents are 
transmitted to the offspring. This transmission is cer- 
tainly comprehensive in its character, since it relates to 
structure, function and qualities, and indeed to every 
feature of the organization. But in instances not a few 
there are apparent exceptions to this law of transmission. 
These, however, are apparent rather than real. They 
appear to us as exceptions because of the limitations of 
our knowledge of this great question. These supposed 
exceptions are doubtless the result of the predominant in- 
fluence of other laws acting in opposition to the hereditary 
tendency, and it is characterized as normal, abnormal, 
and acquired, according to its nature. 



FARM ANTMALS. 31 

The heredity of normal characters means the transmis- 
sion of those characters which are natural to the type. 
These may be original traits bestowed upon the species, 
as for instance, timidity in sheep; or they may have been 
acquired and rendered permanent by long-continued trans- 
mission, as in the changed form of all the improved breeds 
of domestic animals. The heredity of abnormal characters 
means the transmission of irregular characters, or those 
which have deviated from the natural and acquired char- 
acteristics of the type. These abnormal characters may 
appear as malformations of structure, derangement of 
function, or they may assume one or the other of various 
forms of disease. Illustrations of the first are found in 
certain families with an irregular number of fingers and 
toes; of the second in the inheritance of deafness, dumb- 
ness and impaired vision; and of the third, in the reap- 
pearance in the offspring of certain diseases possessed by 
the parents, as, for instance, any of the forms of scrofula. 

The laws which govern heredity are those also which 
determine the results in practical breeding. In practice 
the rules which govern it are almost entirely empirical in 
their origin, since they have been almost exclusively de- 
rived from the accepted methods of the most successful 
breeders. Those who have given thought to the question 
will concede that breeding live-stock is at once a science 
and an art. They will see in it a science in so far as it 
discovers and systematically arranges those truths and 
principles which relate to the improvement of live-stock, 
and it will appear to them an aj-t in so far as they perceive 
that those principles can be successfully utilized in prac- 
tice. It is apparent therefore that the relation between the 
science and the art of breeding is both close and intimate. 
Without some knowlege of the former the latter is not 
likely to be successfully practised, and the measure of 
success which attends the efforts of the breeder will be 
largely proportionate to the measure of the knowledge 
which he may possess of the principles of heredity. 

Reference has been made to certain laws which govern 
transmission. Of these three may be considered as funda- 



33 AGRICULTURE. 

mental, viz.: first, the law that "like begets like"; sec- 
ond, the law or principle of variation; and third, the law 
or principle known as atavism. Since these laws or prin- 
ciples appear to us to lack uniformity and regularity of 
action, the art of breeding is in consequence much more 
complicated and uncertain than it would otherwise be. 
This want of uniformity and of regularity of action, how- 
ever, is apparent rather than real. But so long as we are 
ignorant of the cause or causes of these apparent irregu- 
larities in transmission, we are unable to prevent them. 
And yet there is so much of uniformity in the action of 
these laws that the intelligent breeder cannot be said to 
play at a game of chance. If well posted in the art, his 
efforts will in the main be entirely successful. * 

The law that " /f>^^ begets like"" implies that the char- 
acteristics of the parents will appear in their offspring. 
This law would seem to pervade all animated nature ; 
generally speaking it is uniform in its action, but there 
are some exceptions. Were it not so, examples to illus- 
trate such a law of heredity and proofs to support it would 
not have been needed. That the existence of this law was 
recognized, and that many of its principles were well un- 
derstood from an early period, finds ample illustration in 
the breeding operations conducted by the patriarch Jacob, 
in the monstrous forms that were bred for the amusement 
of the Romans when the decline of the empire was pend- 
ing, and in the care with which the Arabs kept their pedi- 
grees from a remote antiquity. 

So uniform is this principle of heredity in its action that 
it may be designated the compass which guides the breeder 
into the harbor of success. But before he can anchor there 
he must give attention to certain principles, a close adher- 
ence to which is absolutely essential to higher attainment 
in results. He must, for instance, breed to a standard of 
excellence; he must set a proper value on improved blood; 
and he must understand the art of selection and the princi- 
ples of good management generally. Without a standard 
of excellence in his mind, that is, without an ideal type, 
the breeder does not himself know what he is seeking. 



FARM ANIMALS. 33 

Without dominant or stable characters, in at least one par- 
ent, no stability in transmission can be looked for, and 
without purity of breeding for generations dominant char- 
acters cannot be secured. Hence the great importance of 
purity of blood in effecting improvement in domestic ani- 
mals. Since some inferior animals will occasionally ap- 
pear, even where the breeding is the most skilful, the 
necessity will always exist for the exercise of a most rigor- 
ous selection on the part of every breeder who is to stand 
on the upland of success. When aided by judicious selec- 
tion, the^law that like produces like enables us to effect 
improvement until a certain standard of excellence is 
reached, to maintain improvement when it has been 
secured, and to mould new types and form new breeds. 

By the law or principle of variation is meant the ten- 
dency sometimes found in animals to produce characters 
in the progeny which differ from those of the parental 
type. These changes relate to both form and function; 
in time they may become modifications of the systems of 
animals. They may be classed as gradual, or general and 
ordinary; and as sudden, or spontaneous and extraordinary. 
General variation is that tendency to change from the 
original type whicVi characterizes in a greater or a less de- 
gree all the individuals of a breed. Illustrations of the 
principle of general variation may be found, first, in the 
tendency of grain to deteriorate which has fallen upon an 
unkindly soil ; and second, in the quick deterioration of 
the heavy breeds of sheep when confined to unproductive 
and rugged pastures. Chief among the numerous causes 
leading to general variation are changed conditions of life 
in animals, as climate, food, habit, and environment. Some- 
times these influences act independently and sometimes in 
conjunction. The principle of spontaneous variation may 
be defined as that tendency sometimes found in animals to 
produce progeny more or less unlike either of the parents 
or the ancestry of these. Illustrations of the operation of 
this principle may be found in the occasional production of 
progeny very unlike the parents or the ancestry in color, 
form, and other characteristics, and in the existence of horn- 
less breeds of cattle. 



34 AGRICULTURE. 

By atavism is meant that innate tendency in animals to 
revert to the original type. It differs from the principle 
that like produces like in the reproduction of resemblances 
to an ancestry more or less remote rather than to the par- 
ents, and differs from spontaneous variation in produc- 
ing resemblances to an ancestry more remote than the im- 
mediate parents, whereas the latter produces characters 
unlike those of the ancestry, whether near or remote. Il- 
lustrations of atavic transmission are found in the occa- 
sional apearance of scars or horns in the polled breeds of 
cattle bred pure for many successive generations, and in 
the occasional appearance of tan-colored spots on the ears 
and face of the American merino. 

It is evident, therefore, that an intimate knowledge of 
the principles which govern breeding is highly important 
to those engaged in the production of live-stock. Hence 
they should study these with the utmost care and should em- 
body them in their practice to the greatest possible extent. 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 35 



III. VETERINARY SCIENCE. 

COM3ION DISEASES OF FARM ANIMALiS. 

By W. G. Clark, M.D.C, Beaver Dam, Wis. 

I. HORSES. 

The common method of administering medicine to the horse 
is in the form of a drench. In drenching a horse the bottle 
should be clean, strong, and smooth. The head should be 
elevated just enough to prevent the horse from throwing the 
liquid froitl the mouth. If the animal refuses to swallow, tickle 
the roof of the mouth with the finger or the neck of the bottle. 
Do not rub, pinch, or pound the throat, nor draw the tongue 
out. These in no way aid the horse to swallow and often do 
harm. If coughing occurs or by any mishap the bottle is 
crushed in the mouth, lower the head at once. Do not attempt 
to pour medicine through the nose; it is liable to strangle the 
animal. 

Irritating substances, as turpentine, should be given in bland 
fluids such as oil or milk. 

Warm-water injections are of great value in treating many 
bowel troubles. A very good injection pipe may be made with 
about 30 inches of inch rubber hose and an ordinary tin funnel. 
Oil the hose and insert it in the rectum from 12 to 18 inches, and 
elevate the funnel above the back and pour in the water. The 
force of gravitation will carry it into the bowels. 

Soap and water, or salt and water, may be injected in this 
manner m quantitities of a gallon or more every hour. 

Spasmodic Colic. 

Causes. — Error in diet is the most prolific cause, as improper 
food in improper quantities at irregular intervals ; large 
draughts of cold water when warm ; eating when exhausted ; 
intestinal parasites; or foreign bodies in the bowels. 

Symptoms. — The horse manifests uneasiness, moves forward 
and back in the stall, looks toward the flank, switches the tail, 
paws, lies down and rolls; after a little the spasm will subside 
and the animal become quiet. Soon the spasm returns with 



36 AGRICULTURE. 

increased severity. As the disease progresses, the animal 
will become more violent and the intervals between the 
spasms shorter. 

Treatment. — Always urgent, as it often runs a rapid 
course, terminating fatally in a few hours. 

Give as a drench laudanum i oz., baking-soda one table- 
spoonful, sweet spts. nitre i oz., water one half-pint. This 
may be repeated in half an hour if nol relieved. Always 
give injections of soap and warm water. Blanket the ani- 
mal and rub the abdomen briskly. If inclined to hang on, 
apply a paste of mustard to the abdomen and give raw lin- 
seed oil I pt., chloral hydrate 4 dr., dissolved in warm 
water. 

Flatulent Colic. 

The causes and symptoms are similar to those of spas- 
modic colic. 

The pain is not so severe at the outset and gradually in- 
creases in severity as the bowels become distended by gas. 
No intervals of ease as in spasmodic colic. The abdomen 
becomes rapidly distended and the animal dies from sufio- 
cation or rupture of the bowels unless soon relieved. 

Treatment. — Usually necessary to puncture with a tro- 
car and canula, which requires a knowledge of the anat- 
omy of the parts. Internally give hyposulfite of soda 2 oz., 
fl. ex. ginger 4 dr., spts. turpentine 4 dr., water i pint. 
Repeat in half an hour if necessary. Give injection of soap 
and warm water at short intervals. 

Pneumonia — Lung Fever. 

The most common cause is exposure to a cold draught 
when tired and sweaty. 

Symptoms. — It is usually ushered in with a chill, fol- 
lowed by fever. The ears and legs are cold, pulse-rate in- 
creased, labored breathing, elbows turned out, increased 
working of the ribs, the animal persistently stands, appe- 
tite usually lost. 

Treatment. — Place in a comfortable well-ventilated box- 
stall. Blanket warmly, rub the legs and apply bandages. 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 3*? 

During the chill give large doses of stimulants, as whisky, 
alcohol, ginger, etc., at short intervals. 

If the breathing is not relieved in a few hours, apply mus- 
tard over the ribs, just back of the shoulder-blades. 

Give nourishing, easily digested food. Keep the animal 
perfectly quiet. Give i-oz. doses of nitrate of potash In the 
drinking-water three times daily. After the chill is relieved 
keep a pail of fresh water before the animal at all times. 

Azoturia — Black-water. 

This disease is quite common among farm horses, 
and .is due solely to overfeeding on nitrogenous foods and 
lack of exercise, followed by the accumulation in the sys- 
tem of waste matters. 

Symptoms. — The animal is taken from the barn after a 
few days' rest on full rations, apparently as well as usual. 
After driving from half a mile to six or eight miles the 
horse vvill begin to lag and sweat profusely. Shortly will 
begin to go lame, usually in one hind limb. If urged on, 
will soon lose the use of the limbs and fall to the 
ground, unable to rise. The urine if passed will 
be dark and coffee-colored. This is a diagnos- 
tic symptom. The muscles over the hips become hard 
and swollen, and the animal will struggle convulsively and 
attempt to rise. 

Treatment. — Unhitch the animal as soon as the first symp- 
toms are noticed and take the horse to the nearest barn. Fold 
a woolen blanket and wring out of hot water and place over the 
hips, covering with a dry blanket. Repeat as soon as it becomes 
cool, and continue this until the more acute symptoms are re- 
lieved. Internally give laudanum i oz., raw linseed oil one pint, 
and repeat the laudanum in an hour if the pain is not relieved. 
If possible, the urine should be drawn with a catheter, as it is 
rarely passed when the animal is down. Give injections of soapy 
warm water at frequent intervals. 

Distemper — Strangles. 

This is a contagious disease due to a specific virus that very 
few horses escape. It usually runs a benign course and termi- 
nates favorably. 



38 AGRICULTURE. 

Treatment. — It is not of much use to attempt to check the 
course of the disease; in all cases proper shelter and nursing are 
most important. 

Give laxative sloppy food and apply warm poultices to the 
throat, to hasten suppuration. In no case give purging or de- 
pressing medicines. In fact, the whole treatment consists in 
producing and favoring the discharge of the abscess. As soon 
as fluctuation can be detected the abscess should be opened. 
When the disease assumes the malignant form or is complicated, 
apply to a competent veterinarian. 

Sprains. 

Treatment. — Rest in a quiet well-bedded stall. If the injury 
is below the knee or hock and the weather is warm, bathe the 
part three times daily for an hour at a time with cold water and 
rub dry. 

If above the knee or hock, or the weather is cold, use hot water. 

After bathing apply a mild stimulant, as spirits of camphor, 
arnica, etc. 

If the lameness persists after the active inflammation is re- 
duced use the following liniment: aqua ammonia and spirits 
turpentine, 4 oz. ; of each linseed oil 8 oz. ; mix and apply twice 
daily with friction. 

Punctured Wounds of the Foot. 

In all cases the horn around the seat of the injury should 
be thinned down and a free opening made for the escape of 
the products of suppuration. Cauterize the wound with 95 
per cent carbolic acid and apply a poultice. Change twice. 
daily and dress the wound with the following lotion: Zinc 
sulph. I oz., sugar lead 1 oz. , carbolic acid 4 dr. , water i pint. 

Thrush. 

The most common cause of thrush is the filthy condition of 
the stable in which the horse is kept. Muddy yards and roads, 
also hard work on rough, stony roads may excite this disease. 

Symptoms. — Increased secretion in the cleft of the frog and 
an offensive odor. After a time considerable discharge takes 
place and there is rapid destruction of the tissue of the frog. 

Treatment. — Remove the cause. Cut away all diseased tissue 
and cleanse the foot thoroughly. Take white vitriol i oz., and 
water 6 ozs. Saturate pledgets of tow or cotton with the solu- 
tion and crowd into the cleft and each side of the frog. Dress 
once daily until the discharge ceases. 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 39 

Cuts ft'om Barb-wire, etc. 

When bleeding to any extent follows a wound, this must first 
be checked. 

A moderately tight bandage with oakum, tow, or cobwebs will 
usually stop the bleeding in a short time. If the blood is bright 
red and flows in jets, apply a compress between the wound and 
the heart. 

If it is dark and the flow regular, apply pressure between the 
wound and the extremity. Cleanse the wound thoroughly with 
warm water and a soft sponge. Then dress with a 3 per cent 
solution of carbolic acid and apply a bandage so as to bring the 
edges together. If proud flesh appears, treat it with burnt alum. 

II. COWS. 

Milk Fever. 

Symptoms. — Dulness, uneasy movements of the hind 
limbs, head and horns hot; the animal soon becomes weak 
and unable to rise, head laid back on the flank or dashed to 
the ground, bowels constipated, sensation usually lost. 

Treatment. — Give a purgative dose of salts. Apply 
mustard paste along the spine. Blanket and keep warm. 

Give injections of soap and warm water. Internally give 
^ pt. of whisky, fi. ex. belladonna | oz., tr. nux vomica 2 dr. 
every three hours. 

Prevention. — Spare diet a week before and after calving. 
If constipated after delivery give a dose of salts. 

Garget. 

Causes. — Irregularities of diet, overfeeding on stimulat- 
ing food, exposure to cold, external injuries, as blows, etc. 

Symptoms. — Seldom attacks the whole udder. Swelling, 
heat, pain, and redness of the inflamed portion. The milk 
is curdled, whey-like, and mixed with blood. In severe 
cases there is much constitutional disturbance. 

Treatment. — Endeavor to discover the cause and remove 
it. The food should be devoid of milk-producing constitu- 
ents. Draw the milk frequently, using a milking-tube if 
necessary. 

If the weather is warm bathe the udder for an hour or 
more with hot water. 

Take fluid extract belladonna i oz., glycerin 2 ozs.; 



40 AGRICULTURE. 

mix and apply three times daily with mild friction. Give 
two teaspoonfuls fluid extract belladonna three times 
daily. If constipated, give epsom salts i. lb., ginger i oz., 
water i qt. 

Abortion. 

The cow may abort from any cause profoundly disturbing 
the nervous system, inflammation of the internal organs, 
diarrhoea, acute indigestion, blows on the abdomen, expos- 
ure to cold storms, drinking ice-water, feeding on ergotized 
grains and grasses, and infection from abortion discharges 
of other animals. 

Symptoms. — If it occurs within the first two months it is 
not apt to be noticed. During the latter part of gestation 
abortion resembles normal delivery, except that more effort 
and straining are present. 

Treatment. — The most important object in an impending 
abortion is to recognize it as soon as possible and apply 
preventive measures. Place in a quiet dark stall and check 
straining by sedatives. Laudanum i oz. ; repeat in two 
hours if necessary; or fl. ex. black haw. in same doses. 

After an abortion burn the foetus and afterbirth and all 
fitter that is soiled, or bury deeply and cover with quick- 
lime. 

Flood the womb with a 2% solution of carbolic acid and 
wash the external organs once daily with a $% solution. 
Separate from the herd for 30 days. 

In epizootic abortion material benefit has in many cases 
been derived from phosphate of lime. Small doses (^dram) 
mav be given daily in the food. 

Hoven or Bloat. 

Causes. — Overeating, choking, frosted roots, and fermen- 
tation of the food. 

Treatment. — In urgent cases tap on the left side at a 
point equidistant from the point of the hip, the last rib and 
the processes of the lumbar vertebrae, pointing the trocar 
or knife downward, inward, and forward. If slight give 



VETEKIKARY SCIENCE. 41 

spts. turpentine i oz., raw linseed oil i pt., and place a gag 
in the mouth. 

When relieved give a purgative and keep on a light diet 
for a few days. 

Diarrhcea in Calves. 

Always dme to indigestion and caused usuafly by over- 
feeding or improper food. 

Prevention. — Feed at least three times daily. The milk 
should be sweet and fed at a temperature of 90° to 100° F. 
The pails used in feeding should be kept sweet and clean. 

Treatment. — Cut down the ration, scald the milk or add 
lime-water in the proportion of i to 5. If the discharges 
are bright yellow give castor oil i to 2 tablespoonfuls. If 
there is great weakness give small doses of stimulants 
(ginger, brandy, whisky). 

Choking. 

Common among cattle when fed on roots, etc. To pre- 
vent tie the head so that it cannot be thrown up, or withhold 
dangerous foods. 

Symptoms. — Head extended, bloating, labored breathing, 
continuous coughing. If in the throat there is great distress 
and the animal may die quickly. If lower the symptoms 
are not as acute. 

Treatment. — If in the throat remove with the hand. If 
below reach and the object can be located from the outside, 
give small drenches of linseed oil and manipulate from the 
outside. Take time. Do not apply too much force. Usu- 
ally best to work the object toward the throat. 

If unable to remove the object it must be pushed down; 
this may be done with a piece of i-in. rubber-hose, 6 ft. in 
length, well oiled, and inserted in the gullet, and gently 
force the object down. 

Tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis is an infectious disease characterized by the 
formation in the various organs of the body of tubercles or 



42 AGRICULTURE. 

nodules, and is due to a specific micro-organism, the bacillus 
tuberculosis. 

Tuberculosis in animals is identical wit«h tuberculosis 
(consumption) in the human family, the ravages of which 
are far greater than those of any other disease. 

The death rate from consumption, which is but one of its 
many forms, is about one in seven. 

All domestic animals are more or less subject to the dis- 
ease. Dairy cattle, however, in consequence of their mode 
of life and the heavy drain on their system from excessive 
breeding and milking, are more predisposed to the disease 
than any other of the domestic animals. 

Cause. — The essential cause is the specific germ, the 
tubercle bacillus, without which the disease could not exist. 
Since the disease is found in the lungs in a large proportion 
of cases, it is evident that tuberculosis is usually contracted 
by inhaling the germs with the air. It may also be caused 
by the ingestion of infected meat and milk and by direct 
inoculation. 

The development of the disease is favored by anything 
that tends to impair the general health of the animal, as 
overcrowding in poorly ventilated stables, hereditary pre- 
disposition, in-and-in breeding, lack of exercise, errors in 
diet, etc. 

Symptoms. — The symptoms are very obscure, and in some 
cases where the disease is well advanced there is seemingly 
little alteration in the health of the animal. The most 
prominent symptoms are a short, husky cough, enlargement 
of the lymph glands around the throat, dulness, capricious 
appetite, staring coat, and emaciation. 

Persistent oestrum or heat, with barrenness, especially 
when there is a harsh, staring coat and general unthrifty 
condition, is suspicious. 

The Tuberculin Test. — Tuberculin is a glycerin ex- 
tract of the soluble products produced by the growth of the 
tubercle bacillus, concentrated, filtered, and sterilized. 
When properly prepared it contains no living germs and 
cannot produce tuberculosis. It was introduced to the 
medical profession by Dr. Koch as a cure for tuberculosis. 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 43 

Although it has not found practical application as a curative 
agent, it furnishes us the best diagnostic agent for bovine 
tuberculosis yet known. 

A summary of statistics indicates that about 88 per cent 
of tuberculous animals show the reaction fever on inocula- 
tion, while 90 per cent that were declared free from disease 
on account of the absence of fever did not show on autopsy 
any signs of the disease. 

Prevention. — The stables should be light and well ven- 
tilated. Cattle should be kept from interchange of stalls 
or stancjiions. Breed only from healthy animals. No con- 
sumptive person should be allowed to care for stock. 

Isolate all suspected animals. Such animals should be 
examined by a competent veterinarian, and if found to be 
tuberculous the whole herd should be tested. Tuberculous 
animals should be killed and the carcasses burned or buried 
deeply and covered with quicklime. Disinfection should 
be thorough. Remove and burn all litter. Burn sulphur 
in the closed stable. Wash or spray all woodwork with a 
solution of corrosive sublimate, one part, to one thousand 
parts of water. 

Corrosive sublimate is a deadly poison and should be 
used with care. Whitewash with freshly slaked lime. 

III. SHEEP. 
Scab. 

Due to parasitic mites which infest the skin. 

Symptoms. — Intense itching, small reddish pimples ap- 
pear, rupture, and discharge a watery fluid; scabs form, the 
wool falls out in patches. Large sores sometimes result 
from the incessant rubbing. The parasite may be seen with 
a low-power lens. 

Treatment. — Take one pound of tobacco to each five 
gallons of water and boil until the strength is exhausted 
from the leaves. Strain and add one pound of sulphur to 
each five gallons. Allow each sheep to remain in the bath 
for five minutes, working the solution into all parts of the 
skin and breaking up the scabs. Place on a slooping rack 
and press the liquid out of the fleece, allowing it to run back 
into the trough. The same dip may be used for ticks. 



44 AGRICULTURE. 

Foot-Rot. 

Separate the sound animals from the diseased ones and 
from contaminated pastures and buildings. Carefully 
yemove all diseased horn and foreign bodies and walk 
the sheep through a trough containing one pound of blue 
vitriol to three gallons of water. Place the infected flock 
on a dry upland pasture, if possible. 

Grub in the Head. 

This is the larvae of a small gadfly {vestrus ovts) which 
deposits its eggs within the nostrils. It stays there during 
the winter and spring, often proving harmless, but some- 
times causing much irritation, a white muco-purulent dis- 
charge, with dullness and stupor. 

Prevention. — Smear the nose with tar, or feed salt from 
two-inch augur-holes bored in a log, the surface of which is 
smeared with tar. 

Treatment. — Place in a warm building and introduce 
into the nostrils snuff, a solution of tobacco, or turpentine 
and olive-oil equal parts, to kill the larvae or cause their 
expulsion by sneezing; or place in a close room and subject 
to the fumes of burning sulphur for 15 min., as strong as 
can be endured, once daily for 3 or 4 days. 

IV. SWINE. 

Hog Cholera. 

A specific contagious fever of swine. 

Symptoms. — The period of incubation varies from three 
to fifteen days. Shivering, nose hot and dry, later refuses 
food, lies under the litter, eyes sunken, gait unsteady. 
Heat and soreness of the skin, with tenderness, red patches 
and black spots; labored breathing; hard, dry cough; sore- 
ness of the belly; costiveness, followed by a foetid diar- 
rhoea. 

Prevention. — If it breaks out in a herd, kill and bury the 
diseased. Thoroughly disinfect everything they have come 
in contact with, using one-half ounce of corrosive sublimate 
in four gallons of water. Burn all straw and litter. Give 
the healthy ones clean, dry quarters. If possible, divide up 
the herd, placing a few in each pen. Allow free access to 



I 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 



45 



wood or animal charcoal and give in the drinking-water ten 
drops of carbolic acid for each one hundred and fifty pounds 
of live weight. Take the temperature daily, inserting a 
clinical thermometer in the rectum, and remove every 
animal showing a temperature of 103' or over. 

Kill and bury as soon as the symptoms of the disease are 
well manifested. 

Medicinal treatment of the disease is of but little avail. 
A good dietetical treatment, including a strict observance of 
sanitary principles, is of much more importance than the 
use of medicines. 

The pens should be kept scrupulously clean. The food 
given should be clean, of the best quality, and easily 
digested. The troughs used in feeding should be thor- 
oughly cleaned at least once daily. Keep away from in- 
fected herds, as the germs may be carried on the shoes or 
clothing. It is said that the virus will blow half a mile on 
the wind. It may also be spread by birds and dogs. 

Intestinal Worms. 

This is one of the most common troubles of swine. 

Symptoms. — A cough is usually the first symptom noticed ; 
animals have a voracious appetite, yet lose flesh and exhibit 
general signs of ill health. If the faeces are examined the 
worms or their eggs can usually be found. 

Treatment. — Give one teaspoonful of spirits of turpentine 
for each one hundred and fifty pounds of live weight once 
daily in milk or oil. Place common salt where they can have 
free access to it. Give nutritious, easily digested food. 

VETERINARY REMEDIES AND DOSES. 

By W. G. Clark, M. D. C, Beaver Dam, Wis. 
Graduation of Doses. 



Horse. 


Ox. 


Dose. 


3 years. 
2 

6 months. 
1-6 " 


2 years. 

I " 

9 months. 

1-3 


I p.Trt. 
2/3 •• 

\% " 
1/16— 1/32 part. 



46 AGRICULTURE. 

When not specified, the doses given apply to a full-grown 
horse of medium size. Dose for the ox, from i^ to 2 parts; 
sheep, J to 1^ part. Animals of a nervous temperament are 
usually more susceptible to the action of drugs. 

No agent should be given until sufficiently diluted to 
prevent irritation of the mouth, and irritants that will not 
mix with water (turpentine, etc.) should be given in linseed 
oil, milk, or eggs, after being thoroughly mixed. 

Raw Linseed Oil. — Dose : Horse, one half-pint to one 
quart. Laxative in small doses, purgative in large. Not 
so active as castor oil. A valuable laxative in young and 
delicate animals. For calves and Iambs it is more gentle 
and safer than salts. In adults it is the best laxative to 
use where there is an irritable condition of the bowels, and 
in all febrile diseases where a laxative is needed. In im- 
paction of the bowels a pint may be given two or three 
times daily until relieved, supplemented by warm-water 
injections every two hours. Valuable in cases of choking 
on account of its lubricating qualities. 

Castor Oil. — Causes more griping and nausea than lin- 
seed oil and is more certain in its action. Used chiefly as a 
laxative for calves, foals, sheep, swine, and dogs. 

Useful in diarrhoea of calves and other young animals 
when the discharges are bright yellow and irritating. 
Dose for a calf, from i to 4 tablespoonfuls. 

Epsom Salts. — For cattle this is the purgative in most 
frequent and general use. Adult cattle take from i lb. to i^ 
lbs. In small doses in febrile diseases it lowers the tem- 
perature, improves the appetite, and helps to maintain a 
healthy and regular action of the bowels. Epsom salts is 
one of the best antidotes for lead poisoning. When used 
as a purgative, give from i to 2 oz. ginger with the salts. 

Oil of Turpentine (Spts. Turpentine). — Dose : Horse, 
^ to I oz. Very irritating to the mucous membrane, and when 
used internally should be given in oil or some bland fluid. 
Stimulant and anti-spasmodic. One of the most useful 
remedies in flatulent colic in the horse, and hoven or bloat 
in the ox. Also used to kill and expel intestinal worms. 
When used for this purpose, it is given after fasting in 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 47 

large doses, i^ to 2 01. for the horse, followed in 12 hours 
by a purgative. 

Applied externally it is an irritant and is used in many 
liniments. The following liniment may be used where a 
mild counter-irritant is desired : Oil of turpentine and aqua 
ammonia, of each 4 oz., linseed oil 8 oz. Mix. This lini- 
ment is used chiefly for rheumatic swellings, sprains, and 
bruises after the active pain is subdued by fomentations, 
and for sore throats, as seen in distemper. 

Alcohol. — Dose : Horse, h oz. well diluted, whisky 
or brandy 2 to 4 oz. Alcohol is a narcotic poison. It first 
stimulates, then deranges, and ultimately depresses the 
functions of the brain and spinal cord. It kills, as a rule, by 
paralysis of respiration. Medicinally it is a very valuable, 
diffusible stimulant, anti-spasmodic heart tonic and anti- 
septic. Moderate doses increase the gastric secretions and 
aid digestion, but large doses destroy pepsin, arrest secre- 
tion, and interfere with absorption. There is probably no 
drug more extensively used than alcohol. It is useful in 
indigestion, spasmodic colic, cases of poisoning by aconite 
or tobacco. It is valuable in influenza and debilitating dis- 
eases. In blood-poisoning whisky combined with quinine 
is one of the most effective agents we have in controlling 
the temperature and keeping up the strength of the animal. 

The following is very useful in some cases of indigestion: 
Whisky i pt., quinine (sulfate) i oz., water i pt. Mix. 
Give 3 ounces at intervals of 3 to 4 or 6 hours, according to 
the nature of the case. 

Saltpeter (Nitrate of Potash). — Dose : Horse, i tea- 
spoonful to half an ounce. Large doses are irritant and 
cathartic and are liable to cause inflammation of the bow- 
els. Medicinal doses are discretive, alterative, antiseptic, 
febrifugal, and refrigerant. In febrile, inflammatory, and 
rheumatic complaints it allays fever, lowers excessive tem- 
perature, and removes by the kidneys both solid and fluid 
matters. Dissolved in water and applied externally it ab- 
stracts heat and is a useful refrigerant. Combined with 
sulfate of iron it makes an excellent tonic for horses 
recovering from debilitating diseases. 



48 AGRICULTURE. 

Saltpeter 2 oz., dried sulf. iron 3 oz. Mix. Give 2 
teaspoonfuls with the feed 2 or 3 times daily. 

Alum. — Alum is an astringent. Chiefly used externally. 
Use a saturated solution in hot water. Applied to the 
shoulders of horses in the spring it toughens the skin and 
prevents collar-galls. Useful in healing harness-galls. 
One of the best lotions to apply to barb-wire cuts and other 
wounds of a similar nature to prevent growth of proud 
flesh. Sometimes dusted over the surface in the form 
of burnt alum ; not so effective as the saturated solution. 

Ginger. — Dose : Horse, ^ to i oz. Ginger stimulates 
the various mucous membranes with which it comes in 
contact. Administered internally it increases the gas- 
tric secretions, facilitates digestion, and checks formation 
of gas. It is a useful adjunct to many medicines and is 
given with tonics and stimulants. Combined with purga- 
tives it diminishes their liability to nauseate and gripe, and 
also hastens their effect. It is used in all domesticated ani- 
mals to fulfil those purposes, and is especially adapted to 
cattle and sheep. 

Carbolic Acid. — One of the best and cheapest disinfec- 
tants known. For dressing fresh wounds it may be used 
in from 2 per cent to 5 per cent watery solution. In oil i 
part to 15. Inhalation of the vapor with steam is of great 
service in malignant sore throat and abscesses following 
strangles. Carbolic acid is a narcotic irritant poison, and 
considerable care must be exercised in its use, as it is liable 
to become absorbed and produce poisonous effects if ap 
plied over a large surface in a strong solution. It has been 
highly recommended in the treatment of hog cholera. It 
may be given to hogs in doses of from i to 5 drops well 
diluted. 

Pine Tar. — Not much employed internally. It is a good 
dressing in thrush and canker of the horse's foot. It is also 
of special service in foot-rot in sheep. It acts as a stimulant 
and deodorizer to foul-smelling wounds and prevents the 
attacks of flies. 

Lime Water. — Lime water is prepared by slaking a small 
quantity of freshly burned lime with a large quantity of 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 49 

water, allowing the undissolved matter to settle and pour- 
ing off the clear solution. This should be kept in tightly 
corked bottles. Lime water is an alkali and is used in in- 
digestion, bloat, and diarrhoea, especially among calves.. 
Given with the milk in the proportion of 1:5. Scalds and 
burns may be treated with carron oil, which is composed of 
lime water and linseed oil, equal parts. Fresh lime in 
powder and solution is used in cleansing and disinfecting 
stables. For this purpose a little carbolic acid may be 
added to the solution. 

SuLFU«.-~In large doses it is an active irritant poison. In 
medicinal doses it is a laxative, alterative, and stimulates 
secretion. Care should be taken to prevent the animal 
from taking cold when given sulfur. It opens the pores of 
the skin and stimulates perspiration. Chiefly used in treat- 
ing rheumatism and chronic skin diseases. Dose : Horse, 

i OZ. to 2 OZ. 

SUPPRESSION OP HOG CHOLERA AND SWINE 
PLAGUE. (Craig.) 

Causes. — Hog cholera and swine plague are caused by 
different bacteria, but they are equally dependent for the 
success of their attacks on the unhealthiness of the hogs, 
due in most instances to unwholesome food and filthy sur- 
roundings. The causes are so similar and the symptoms 
are so much alike and often complicated that it will be best 
to consider the diseases together in what follows. The 
germs that cause them are easily spread over large terri- 
tories by being carried by cars, wagons, or the shoes of per- 
sons that have been among infected hogs. Most frequently 
the origin of the outbreak maybe traced to the importation 
of hogs from diseased districts or to spread from such 
centers by running streams. 

Symptoms. — The first symptoms usually shown in attacks 
of these diseases are those that indicate fever — a rise in 
temperature, thirst, loss of appetite, and redness of the skin 
on the lower part of the neck and inner side of the thigh. 
Usually a hog so diseased begins to cough when started 



50 AGRICULTURE. 

from its bed. A constipated condition of the bowels 
changes to diarrhoea as the disease progresses, and this 
results in a rapid loss of flesh. Dissection generally shows 
the lungs to be inflamed, the spleen enlarged, or the 
lining of the large intestine covered with numerous ulcers. 

Prevention. — To protect hogs from attacks of these dis- 
eases it is necessary to observe the following recommen- 
dations: The hogs should not be watered at running 
streams, as the germs are readily carried by these. Per- 
sons coming from infected districts should not be allowed 
to go near your hogs, and you should not go among your 
neighbors' hogs if they are sick. When other hogs are 
brought to your farm, assume that they are infected and 
keep them away from yours at least for six weeks. Observe 
as much cleanliness as possible in regard to food and sur- 
roundings. Feed a mixture of foods in a sloppy or soft con- 
dition, and withhold heavy grain feeding. Disinfect the 
quarters of the hogs by sprinkling liberally with a five per 
cent solution (by volume) of carbolic acid, and use a two per 
cent solution of the same for washing the hogs. 

Treatment. — The hogs showing any of the symptoms 
described should at once be separated from the others, and 
put in cheaply constructed quarters, so that the latter may 
be burned when no longer required. The well hogs should 
be removed to disinfected quarters. Give all the hogs the 
following mixture, recommended by Dr. Salmon, Chief of 
the Bureau of Animal Industry: 

Wood charcoal i lb. 

Sulfur I " 

Salt 2 lbs. 

Baking-soda 2 ** 

Glauber's salts I lb. 

Sodium hyposulfite 2 lbs. 

Antimony sulfid i lb. 

This should be given in soft food in the proportion of a 
teaspoonful daily to a two hundred pound hog. Remove 
all refuse from the pens in which the infected hogs were 
kept, and dig out the old soil, put in fresh earth, disinfect 



VETERIKARY SCIENCE. 51 

with carbolic acid solution, and allow the pens to remain 
vacant for at least six months. The same feeder should 
not attend the well and the sick hogs unless his shoes are 
changed after each visit to the sick hogs. The bodies of 
the dead hogs should be thrown into a rubbish heap and 
burned; but if this cannot be easily carried out, a long, deep 
trench should be dug, and when the carcases are thrown 
into it they should be covered with a layer of quicklime and 
at least six inches of earth. When the disease has spent 
itself or has been effaced, the entire mass in the trench 
should be covered with six inches of quicklime and at least 
six feet of earth. The place selected for the burial of 
the hogs should not drain towards a stream, and it would 
be better to fence it. The dead hogs should never be drawn 
over the ground, and the wagon used should be washed 
with a disinfectant. 

REMEDIES FOR THE HORN FL.Y. 

(Weed.) 

The most satisfactory way of preventing the attacks of 
the horn fly is to apply to the cattle some substance that 
serves as a repellent; the best results are obtained by the 
use of a cheap oil, such as fish oil or crude cotton-seed 
oil, to which a small amount of carbolic acid or pine tar 
has been added. Either of the following formulas are 
recommended for this purpose: 

1. Crude cotton-seed oil, or fish oil, 3 parts. Pine tar, 
I part. 

2. Crude cotton-seed oil, or fish oil, 100 parts. Crude 
carbolic acid, 3 parts. 

In either case these substances are to be mixed, and ap- 
plied rather lightly to the cattle by means of a wide paint 
brush, a sponge, or even a woolen cloth; the combination 
immediately drives off the flies, and remains on in condi- 
tion to keep them off for about five days. A combination 
of "kerosene emulsion and tobacco decoction may also be 
used with good effect. 



52 AGRICULTURE. 

LIST OF DISINFECTANTS. 

(Sternberg.) 

The most useful agents for the destruction of spore- 
containing infectious material are: 

1. Fire. — Complete destruction by burning. 

2. Steam under Pressure.^ 105° C. (221° F.,) for ten minutes. 

3. Boiling in Water for half an hour. 

4. Chlorid of Lime (should contain at least 25 per cent of 
available chlorin). — A 4 per cent solution. 

5. Mercuric Chlorid. — A solution of 1-500. 
For the destruction of infectious material which owes 

its infecting power to the presence of micro-organisms not 
containing spores, any of the following agents are recom- 
mended: 

1. Fire. — Complete destruction by burning. 

2. Boiling in water for ten minutes. 

3. Dry Heat, no" C. (230" F.), for two hours. 

4. Chlorid of Lime. — A 2 per cent solution. 

5. Solution of Chlorinated Soda (should contain at least 
3 per cent of available chlorin). — A 10 per cent solution. 

6. Mercuric Chlorid. — A solution of 1-2000. 

7. Carbolic Acid. — A 5 per cent solution. 

8. Sulfate of Copper. — A 5 per cent solution. 

9. Chlorid of Zinc. — A 10 per cent solution. 

10. Sulfur Dioxid (this will require the combustion of 
between 3 and 4 lbs. of sulfur for every 1000 cubic feet 
of air-space). — Exposure for twelve hours to an atmos- 
phere containing at least 4 volumes per cent of this gas, iti 
presence of m.oisture. 

RULES FOR DISINFECTION OF STABLES. 

In Case of Appearance of Contagious Diseases. 

(Trumbower,) \ 

1. Have all loose litter, hay, and rubbish removed and* \ 
burned. 

2. Have all manure removed to land where cattle have no 
access. ' 

3. Have all feed-troughs, hay-racks and all woodwork 



- VETERINARY SCIENCE. 63 

thoroughly cleaned by washing with hot water in which two 
ounces of carbolic acid to each gallon of water are dissolved. 

4. Thoroughly whitewash the whole of the interior of the 
building with a whitewash containing one pound of chloride 
of lime to each four gallons of water. Enough freshly 
burned quicklime should be added to make the wash show 
where applied. Especially should this be applied to the 
sides and front of the stalls, feed-troughs and hay-racks 
(inside and outside). 

5. All rotten woodwork to be removed and burned, and 
replac^ with new. 

6. All buckets, forks, shovels, brooms, and other objects 
used about the stable to be washed and covered with the 
same solution. 

7. All drains to be thoroughly cleaned and disinfected 
with a solution of chloride of lime, one pound to four gal- 
lons of water. 

8. In cases of glanders, all harness, poles, and shafts of 
wagons, neck-yokes and pole-straps should be thoroughly 
washed with hot water and soap, and afterwards oiled with 
carbolized oil (one part of carbolic acid to ten of oil). Before 
applying the oil, harness should be hung up in the open air 
for one week. 

REGULiATIONS FOR THE GOVERN]MENT OP 

Dairies and Dairy Farms in the District of Colum- 
bia. 

Section i. — No building shall be used for stabling cows 
for dairy purposes which is not well lighted, ventilated, 
drained, and constructed. 

Sec. 2. — No building shall be used for stabling cows for 
dairy purposes which is not provided with a suitable floor, 
laid with proper grades and channels to immediately carry 
off all drainage; and if a public sewer abuts the premises 
upon which such building is situated, they shall be con- 
nected therewith whenever, in the opinion of the health 
officer, such sewer connection is necessary. 

Sec. 3. — No building shall be used for stabling cows for 
dairy purposes which is not provided with good and suffi- 



54 AGRICULTURE. 

cient feeding-troughs or boxes, and with a covered water- 
tight receptacle, outside of the building, for the reception 
of dung and other refuse. 

Sec. 4. — No water closet, privy, cesspool, urinal, in- 
habited room, or workshop shall be located within any 
building or shed used for stabling cows for dairy purposes, 
or for the storage of milk or cream, nor shall any fowl, 
hog, horse, sheep, or goat be kept in any room used for 
such purposes. 

Sec. 5. — The space in buildings or sheds used for stabling 
cows shall not be less than five hundred cubic feet for each 
cow, and the stalls therefor shall not be less than four feet 
in width. 

Sec. 6. — It shall be the duty of each person using any 
premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to keep sucn 
premises thoroughly clean and in good repair and well 
painted or whitewashed at all times. 

Sec. 7. — It shall be the duty of each person using any 
premises for keeping cows for dairy purposes to cause the 
building in which cows are kept to be thoroughly cleaned, 
and remove all dung from the premises so as to prevent its 
accumulation in great quantities. 

Sec. 8. — It shall be the duty of any person having charge 
or control of any premises upon which cows are kept to 
notify the health officer, in writing, of the existence of any 
contagious or infectious disease among such cows, within 
twenty-four hours of the discovery thereof, and to thor- 
oughly isolate any cow or cows affected or which may rea- 
sonably be believed to be infected, and to exercise such 
other precautions as may be directed, in writing, by the 
health officer. 

Sec. 9. — Any person using any premises for keeping 
cows for dairy purposes shall provide and use a sufficient 
number of receptacles made of non-absorbent materials, 
for the reception, storage, and delivery of milk, and shall 
cause them at all times to be cleansed and purified, and 
shall cause all milk to be removed without delay from the 
rooms in which the cows are kept. 

Sec. 10. — Every person keeping cows for the production 



VETERINARY SCIENCE. 55 

of milk for sale shall cause every such cow to be cleaned 
every day and to be properly fed and watered. 

Sec. II. — Every person using any premises for keeping 
cows shall cause the yard used in connection therewith to 
be provided with a proper receptacle for drinking water 
for such cows; none but fresh, clean water to be used in 
such receptacle. 

Sec. 12. — Any enclosure in which cows are kept shall be 
graded and drained so as to keep the surface reasonably 
dry and to prevent the accumulation of water therein, ex- 
cept as may be permitted for the purpose of supplying 
drinking water; no garbage, urine, fecal matter, or similar 
substances shall be placed or allowed to remain in such en- 
closure, and no open drain shall be allowed to run through it. 

Sec. 13. — These regulations shall apply to all premises 
upon which cow's milk is produced for sale. 

Sec. 14. — That any person violating any of these regula- 
tions shall, on conviction in the police court of said district, 
be punished by a fine of not less than five nor more than 
ten dollars for each and every offense, to be collected as 
other fines and penalties are collected. 



56 



AGRICULTUKE. 



IV. FIELD CROPS. 

QUANTITY OF SEED REQUIRED TO THE ACRE. 

(Waring.) 



Designation. Cu|«']?' 

Wheat ij to 2 bu. 

Barley li to 2^ bu. 

Oats 2 to 4 bu. 

Rye I to 2 bu. 

Buckwheat | to i^ bu. 

Millet I to i| bu. 

Corn i to I bu. 

Beans i to 2 bu. 

Peas 2i to 3| bu. 

Hemp I to i^ bu. 

Flax i to 2 bu. 

Rice 2 to 2^ bu. 



When planted in rows or drills 

Broom-corn i to i^ bu. 

Beans i^ to 2 bu. 

Peas li to 2 bu. 



Designation. Q^l"^^ 

Broom-corn. ... i to i-J bu. 

Potatoes 5 to 10 bu. 

Timothy I2 to 24 qts. 

Mustard 8 to 20 qts. 

Herd grass 12 to 16 qts. 

Flat turnip 2 to 3 lbs. 

Red clover 10 to 16 lbs. 

White clover. ... 3 to 4 lbs. 

Blue grass 10 to 15 lbs. 

Orchard grass. .. 20 to 30 lbs. 

Carrots 4 to 5 lbs. 

Parsnips 6 to 8 lbs. 

Onions 4 to 5 lbs. 

Carrots 2 to 2^ lbs. 

Parsnips 4 to 5 lbs. 

Beets 4 to 6 lbs. 



FIELD CROPS. 



57 



SEED MIXTURES FOR HAY AND PERMANENT 

PASTURES 

In Pounds per acre. 



Names of Grasses. 


I . 
Flint. 


II. 

Law- 
son. 


III. 
For Good 
Medium 

Soils. 
De Laun^ 


IV. 

For Wet 

Soils. 
De Laun^ 


V. 

For 

Chalky 

Soils. 

De Laun^ 


VI. 

For 

Perma- 
nent 

Lawns. 
Flint. 


Meadow foxtail 


2 

6 

I 

2 


2 
4 


ID 


4 




3 
3 


Orchard grass 

Sweet-scented vernal 










Meadow fescue 

Tall fescue 


2 
2 

2 


6 

3 

I 
I 


3 
8 

X 


2 


2 
3 


Hard fescue 

Sheep's fescue 




4 
4 


3 
3 


Redtop 

June grass 


2 


2 
2 




3 

4 








Kentucky blue grass. 

Italian rye grass 

Perennial rye grass.., 

Timothy ... 

Rough meadow grass 
Wood meadow grass. 
Red clover 


4 

4 
6 

3 

2 








6 
8 

3 
2 

2 








3 

4 
3 
3 


3 


3 

2 










I 
I 
I 


14 
5 


2 


Perennial red clover. 
White (Dutch) clover 
Alsike 


3 
5 


2 
5 


I 
I 

I 


2 
2 


Yellow oat grass 




I 


I 


Cock's-f oot 




7 

2 

I 


10 
2 

2 
I 




Crested dog's-tail .;. 








Fiorin 








Yarrow 






2 
3 




Cat's-tail 








Cow grass 






I 


I 














40 


45 


41 


40 


38 


43 



For the Northwest the following mixture will, according 
to Shaw, be found suitable: 

Timothy 4 lbs., blue grass 3 lbs., redtop 2 lbs., orchard 
grass 2 lbs., meadow fescue i lb., tall oat grass i lb., 
meadow foxtail i lb., alsike clovers lbs., white clover 2 lbs., 
lucern (alfalfa) 2 lbs., yellow clover i lb., total 22 lbs. 

And for the States east of Michigan and for the provinces 
of Canada eastward of Lake Huron: 

Lucern (alfalfa) 5 lbs., orchard-grass 4 lbs., meadow 
fescue and alsike clover 3 lbs. each, tall oat grass, timothy, 
meadow foxtail, and white clover 2 lbs. each, yellow clover 
I lb.; total 24 lbs. 



58 AGRICULTURE. 

Henry recommends the following mixture of grass and clovei 
seed (pounds per acre) : 

Timothy.... 7 pounds. 

Orchard 4 " 

Italian rye 2 " 

Perennial rye 2 " 

Tall oat 2 " 

Redtop 2 " 

Kentucky blue 2 " 

Alfalfa 4 ' 

White clover I ** 

Alsike clover i ** 

Red clover 2 " 

Total 29 ** 

Flint gives the following mixtures, among others, as repre- 
senting the common ones adopted in New England and among 
farmers throughout the country; 

1. ^ bu. (6 lbs.) redtop; i peck (11 lbs.) timothy ; 5 lbs. red 

clover. 

2. I bu. (12 lbs.) redtop ; i peck (11 lbs.) timothy ; 8 lbs. rtd 

clover. 

3. 4 qts. (li lbs.) redtop ; i peck (11 lbs.) timothy ; 2 qts. red 

clover; i pint white clover. 

4. 12 qts. (i6i lbs.) timothy; 4 lbs. clover. 

5. I bu. redtop; i bu. timothy; lo lbs. clover. 

6. r peck redtop; i peck timothy; 10 lbs. clover, etc. 



1 



FIELD CROPS. 



59 



THE WEIGHT AND AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF 
ORDINARY CROPS IN POUNDS PER ACRE. 

(Warington.) 





Weight of 
Crop. 


3 -• 



H 


c 

V 

be 


u 

2 


u 

3 

m 


iS 



•0 

t/3 


a 
'»3 


.2 
'33 

V 

c 
ti 

lbs. 

3-6 
3-5 

7-1 

4.0 
2.9 

6.9 

3-6 
51 

8.7 
3-4 


l-i 

cu 

lbs. 

14.2 
6.9 

21.1 

16.0 
4-7 

20.7 

13-0 
6.4 

19.4 

10. 
8.0 

18.0 


c 

'u 

o_ 
U 

lbs. 

0.1 
2.4 

2.5 

0.5 
3-6 

4.1 

0.5 
6.1 

6.6 
0.2 






At 
Har- 
vest. 


Dry. 


u 
cJ5 


Wheat : 
grain, 30 bu.. 
straw 


lbs. 

1,800 
3,158 


lbs. 

1,530 
2,653 


lbs. 

30 
142 

172 


lbs. 

33 
15 

48 

35 
13 

48 


lbs. 

2.7 
51 

7.8 
2.9 

3-2 

6.1 


,lbs. 

9-3 

195 

28.8 

9.8 
25-9 

35-7 

9.1 

37-0 


lbs. 

0.6 
2.0 

2.6 

I.I 

3-9 

5-0 

0.8 

4.6 

5-4 
0.2 


lbs. 

I.O 

8.2 
9.2 

1.2 

8.0 

9.2 

1.8 
9.8 

II. 6 
0.5 


lbs. 

0.6 

96-3 


Total crop.. 


4,958 


4,183 


96.9 


Barley : 
grain, 40 bu.. 
straw 


2,080 
2,447 


1,747 
2,080 


46 
III 

^57 


II. 8 
56.8 


Total crop . . 


4.527 


3,827 


68.6 


Oats : 
grain, 45 bu.. 
straw 


1,890 
2,835 


1,625 
2,353 


51 
140 


38 
17 


3-2 

4.8 


19.9 
65.4 


Total crop . . 


4.725 


3,978 


191 

22 

99 


55 

28 
15 


8.0 

1.8 


46.1 

6.5 
29.8 


85.3 


Maize : 
grain, 30 bu.. 
stalks, etc 


1.680 
2,208 


1,500 
1,877 


0.5 


Total crop.. 


3,888 


3.377 


121 


43 




36.3 




Meadow hay, 
ii^ tons 


3,360 


2,822 


203 


49 
102 

77 
29 


5-7 

9.4 

4.4 
4-9 


50.9 

83-4 

24-3 
42.8 


9.2 

5-1 

0.6 
1-7 


32.1 
90.1 

2.9 
26.3 


14.4 

28.2 

4.2 

5-7 


12.3 

24.9 

22.8 
6.3 


14.6 
9.8 

I.I 

4-3 


56.9 


Red clover hay, 
2 tons ... 


4,480 


3,763 


258 

58 
99 


7.0 


Beans : 
grain, 30 bu.. 
straw 


1,920 
2,240 


1,613 
1,848 


0.4 
6.9 


Total crop. . 


4,160 


3,461 


157 


106 


9-3 


67.1 


2-3 


29.2 

25-5 
48.5 

74.0 

19.7 
22.7 


9.9 

5-7 
3.8 

9-5 

6.8 

2.4 


29.1 

22.4 
10.7 

331 

16.9 
4.8 


5-4 

10.9 
II. 2 

22.1 

6.8 
8.3 


7-3 


Turnips : 
root, 17 tons. 
leaf 


38,080 
11,424 


3,126 
1,531 


218 
146 

364 


63 
49 

192 


15-2 
5-7 

20.9 


108.6 
40.2 

148.8 


17.0 
7-5 

24.0 


2.6 
5-1 


Total crop.. 


49,504 


4,657 


7-7 


Swedes: 
root, 14 tons., 
leaf 


31,360 
4,704 


3,349 
706 


163 

75 


70 

28 


14.6 

3-2 


63.3 
16.4 


22.8 
9.2 


3» 

3 6 






Total crop.. 


36,064 


4.055 


238 


98 


17.8* 


79-7 


32.0 


424 


9.2 


21.7 


iS-i 


6.7 



* Calculated from a single analysis only. 



60 



AGRICULTURE. 



THE WEIGHT AND AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF 

ORDINARY CROPS.— Continued. 





Weig 
Cr 

At 
Har- 
vest. 


^ht of 
op. 

Dry. 


u 
3 




G 

bo 
S 


u 

3 

C/3 


U3 



Oh 


-a 



Q 

lbs. 

15 9 
27.0 

42.9 


.5 

in 

<u 

c 

tUD 
CB 

lbs. 

18.3 
24.2 

42.5 

6.3 

3-4 
10.9 

14-3 

1-5 
4-3 

5-8 

1.8 
6.2 

8.0 




ao 

in << 

0^ 

lbs. 
36.4 
16.5 

52.9 
21.5 

1-5 
9-3 

10.8 

I.O 

3-3 

4-3 

1-3 
5-7 

7.0 


'C 


2 
u 

lbs. 

42-5 
40.6 

83.1 
4-4 


u5 


Mangolds: 
root, 22 tons., 
leaf 


lbs. 
49,280 
18,233 


lbs. 

5,914 
1,654 


lbs. 
426 
254 

680 


lbs. 
87 
51 

138 


lbs. 

4-9 
9.1 

14.0 


ilbs. 
222.8 
77-9 

300.7 


lbs. 

69.4 
49-3 

187.7 


lbs. 
8.7 

9.2 






Total crop , . 


67,513 


7,568 


17.9 


Potato : 
tubers, 6 tons. 


13,440 


3,360 


127 


47 

10 
39 


2.7 


76.5 

4.2 

8.8 


3-8 

0.8 
1.6 

2.4 


3-4 

12.9 
73-1 

86.0 

9.0 
16.8 

25.8 

8.2 
54-4 

62.6 


2.6 


Beech: 
wood. 




2,822 

2,975 


26 
166 


2.2 


leaf litter. ... 




53-9 


Tn produce. 




5,797 


192 


49 




13.0 


56.1 


Scotch pine: 
wood 




2,884 
2,845 


15 
42 

57 

20 
121 

141 


— - 




2-3 

4-3 
6.6 

3-6 
4-3 

7-9 


0.2 
^•7 

1.9 

0.4 

1-5 

1.9 


0.5 


leaf litter 




S.8 








T'l produce. 




5,729 


6.3 


Spruce fir: 
wood 




3,064 
2,683 


2.9 


leaf litter 


-— — 


44-3 


T'l produce. 


5,747 


47.2 



SOILING CROPS ADAPTED TO NORTHERN 
ENGLAND STATES. (Lindsey.) 
(For 10 cows' entire soiling.) 



NEV* 



Kind. 



Rye 

Wheat 

Red clover 

Grass and clo- 
ver . . 

Vetch and oats. 



Peas and oats . . \ 
(( it (t 

Barnyard millet.. 
it fct 

Soja bean (me- 
dium green).... 
Corn 



Hungarian 

Barley and peas ] 



Seed per Acre 



2 bush. 



20 lbs 

J^ bu. redtop. .. 
I peck timothy, 
lolbs. red clover 
3 bush. oats. . . . 
50 lbs. vetch . .. 

ij^bu. Canada. 
1^/2 bu. oats . . . 



I peck 



18 quarts. 



I bush ■ 

i^ bu. peas. ... 
i]/^ bu. barley.. 



Time of 
Seeding. 



Sept. 10-15 
July 15— Aug. 
I Sept. 

> April 20 
30 



\ ■' 



' 30 

May 10 

" 25 



" 30 
July 15 



Ausr, 



% acre 
^ acre 



V^acre 



ji^ acre 
1 acre 



Time of Cutting 



May 20- 
June I- 
June 15- 



-May 30 
-June 15 
-June 25 



June 15 — June 30 



June 25- 

July 10- 

June 25- 

July 10- 
July 25- 
Aug. 10- 

Aug. 25- 
Aug. 25- 
Sept. 10- 
Sept. 20- 

Oct. I- 



-July 10 

-July 20 

-July ID 

-July 20 
-Aug. 10 
-Aug. 20 I 

-Sept. 15 
-Sept. 10 
-Sept. 20 
-Sept. 30 

Oct. 20 



! 



FIELD CROPS. 



61 



TIME OF PLANTING AND FEEDING SOILING 
CROPS. (Phelps.) 



Kind of Fodder. 


Amount of 
Seed 
per Acre. 


Approxi- 
mate Time 
of Seeding. 


Approximate 
Time of Feeding. 


1. Rye fodder 

2. Wheat fodder 


2i to 3 bu. 

2i to 3 bu. 

20 lbs. 

2 bu. each 
2 " 

2 " " 
1} bushels 

I bushel 

1 bushel 

2 bu. each 


Sept. I 
Sept. 5-10 
July 20-30 

April 10 
" 20 

t" 3° 
June I 

May 25 
June 5-10 

Aug. 5-10 


May 10-20 
May 20, June 5 
June 5-15 
June 15-25 
June 25, July 10 
July 10-20 

" 20, Aug. I 
Aug. i-io 

" 10-20 

" 20, Sept. 5 

Sept. 5-20 
" 20-30 
Oct. 1-30 


3. Clover 

4. Grass (from grass-lands) 

5. Oats anci peas 

6. " " " 


H t( l( 


8. Hungarian 


9. Clover rowen (from 3) 

10. Soja beans 


11. Cow-peas 

12. Rowen grass (from grass- 

lands) 

13. Barley and peas 





The dates given in the table apply to Central Connecticut and regions 
under approximately similar conditions. 

CYLINDRICAL SILOS. 

Approximate Capacity of Cylindrical Silos for Well 
Matured Corn Silage, in Tons. (King.) 



5« 
0.^ 


Inside Diameter in Feet. 




15 


16 


17 


18 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 

150.6 
161. 
172.2 
183.6 
194.9 
206.4 
218.8 
230.8 
243.2 
255.8 
268.7 
281.8 
294.6 


25 


20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 

29 

.^0 

31 

32. .. 


58.84 
62.90 
67-35 
71-73 
76.12 
80.62 

85-45 
90.17 

94-99 
99.92 
105.0 
109.8 
115. 1 


66.95 
71-56 
76.52 
81.61 
86.61 
89.64 
97-23 
102 6 
108. 1 

"3-7 
119.4 
124.9 
135-9 


75-58 
80.79 
86.38 
92.14 
97-78 
103.6 
109.8 
115-8 
122.0 
128.3 
134-8 
141. 1 
147.8 


84.74 

90-57 
96.84 

103-3 
109.6 
116. 1 
123.0 
129.8 
136.8 

143-9 
151. 1 
158.2 
165.7 


94.41 
100.9 
107.9 
115. 1 
122. 1 
129.3 
137-1 
144-7 
152.4 
160.3 
168.4 
176.2 
184.6 


104.6 
III. 8 
119. 6 
127-5 
135-3 
143-3 
151-9 
160.3 
168.9 
177.6 
186.6 
195.2 
204.6 


"5-3 
123.3 
131. 8 
140.6 
149.2 
158.0 
167.5 
176.7 
186.2 
195.8 
205.7 
215-3 
225-5 


126.6 

135-3 
144.7 

154-3 
163.7 
173-4 
183.8 
194.0 
204.3 
214.9 
225.8 
2.36.3 
247-5 


138.3 
147-9 
158. 1 
168.7 
179.0 
189.5 
200.9 
212.0 
223.3 

234-9 
246.8 
258.2 
270.5 


163.4 
174-7 
186.8 

199-3 
211 .5 
223.9 
237-4 
250-5 
263.9 
277.6 
291.6 

305-1 
319.6 



63 



AGRICULTUKE. 



Area of Feeding Surface and Inside Diameter of Cyl- 
indrical Silo Required to Supply Herds of Different 
Sizes. (King.) 



Feeding Surface. 

30 COWS. 150 square feet 

40 " 200 

50 " 250 

60 ' * 300 

70 •' 350 

80 '* 400 

90 " 450 

100 ** 500 



Inside Diameter. 
14 feet. 
16 

18 

19-75 

21.25 

22.75 

24 

25.25 



NU3IBER OF PLANTS FOR AN ACRE OF GROUND. 



Distance apart. 
Inches. 



Number of 
Plants. 



3 X 3 696,960 

4X4 392,040 

6 X 6 174,240 

9X9 77,440 

Feet. 

I X I 43,560 

li X li 19*360 

2 X 1 21,780 

2 X 2 10,890 

2i X 2i 6,960 

3 X 1 14,520 

3 X 2 7,260 

3X3 4,840 

3i X 3i 3,555 

4X1 10,890 



4X2. 
4 X 3. 
4X4- 

4i X 4i- 



X I. 
X 2. 

X 3. 

X 4 

X 5. 



5,445 
3,630 
2,722 
2,151 
8,711 
4,356 
2,904 
2,178 
1,742 



Distance apart. 
Feet. 



Number of 
Plants. 



6X6 I2IO 

6i X 6i 1031 

7X7 881 

8 X 8 680 

9 X 9 537 

10 X 10 435 



11 X II. 

12 X 12. 

13 X 13. 



360 

302 

257 

14 X 14 222 

15 X 15 193 

16 X 16 170 

i6i X i6i 160 

17 X 17 150 

18 X 18 r34 

19 X 19 ♦.. 120 

20 X 20 108 

25 X 25 69 

30 X 30 48 

33 X 33 40 

40 X 40 27 

50 X 50 17 

60 X 60 12 

66 X 66 , 10 



Si X 5i 1.417 



FIELD CROPS. 



63 



NUMBER OF HILLS OR PLANTS ON AN ACRE OF 
land, for any distance apart, ft*oin 10 in. to 6 ft., 
the lateral and longitudinal distances being un- 
equal. (Waring.) 



■ V 
en y 

5J 


lO 

in. 


12 
in. 


15 

in. 


18 
in. 


20 
in. 


2 ft. 


'^ 


3 ft. 


^.^ 


4 ft. 


4^ 
ft. 


5 ft. 


f 


6 ft. 


in. 

lO 


62726 




























12 


52272 


43560 


























!■; 


41817 


34848 


27878 
























i8 


34«4« 


29040 


23232 


19360 






















20 
ft. 

2 


313&3 


26136 


20908 


17424 


15681 




















26136 


21780 


17424 


14520 


13068 


10890 


















2Vi 


20908 


17424 


13939 


11616 


10454 


8712 


6969 
















■«. 


17424 


14520 


ii6i6 


9680 


8712 


7260 


5808 


4840 














3^ 


14935 


12446 


9953 


8297 


7467 


6223 


4976 


4148 


3565 












4 


13068 


10890 


8712 


7260 


6534 


5445 


f 
4356 


3630 


3111 


2722 










4^ 


11616 


9680 


7744 


6453 


5808 


4840 


3872 3226 


2767 


2420 


2151 








.s. 


10454 


87T2 


6969 


5808 


5227 


4356 


3484 2904 


2489 


2178 


1936 


1742 






5H 


9504 


7920 


6336 


5280 


4752 


3960 


3168 2640 


2263 


1980 


1760 


1584 


1440 




6 


8712 


7260 


5808 


4840 


4356 


3630 


2904 2420 


2074 


1865 


1(513 


1452 


1320 


12 10 



64 AGRICULTUKE. 



. t 

V. HORTICULTURE. 

USUAL DISTANCES FOR PliANTING VEGETABLES. 

(Bailey.) 

Asparagus. . . . Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, i to 2 ft. apart in row. 

Beans, bush. . 2 to 3 ft. apart, i ft. apart in rows. 

" pole. . . 3 to 4 ft. each way. 

Beet, early ... In drills 12 to 18 in. apart. 

" late " " 2 to 3 ft. 

Cabbage, early 16 X 28 in. to 18 X 30 in. 

late.. 2 X 3 ft. to 2i X 3i ft. 

Carrot In drills i to 2 ft. apart. 

Cauliflower. . . 2 X 2 ft. to 2 X 3 ft. 

Celery Rows 3 to 4 ft. apart, 6 to 9 in. in row. 

Corn, sweet . . " 3 to 3^ ft. apart, 9 in. to 2 ft. in row. 

Cucumber 4 to 5 ft. each way. 

Egg-plant 3 X 3 ft. 

Lettuce i X li or 2 ft. 

Melon, Musk. . 5 to 6 ft. each way. 

" Water.. 7 to 8 ft. each way. 

Onion In drills from 14 to 20 in. apart. 

Parsnip " " 18 in. to 3 ft. apart. 

Peas " " early kinds, usually in double row^ 6 

to 9 in. apart': late, in single rows, 2 to 3 

ft. apart. 

Pepper 15 to 18 in. X 2 to 2| ft. 

Potato 10 to 18 in. X 2^ to 3 ft. 

Pumpkin 8 to 10 ft. each way. 

Radish In drills, 10 to 18 in. apart. 

Rhubarb 2 to 4 ft. X 4 ft. 

Salsify In drills, i^ to 2 ft. apart. 

Spinach " ", 12 to 18 in. apart. 

Squash 3 to 4 ft. X 4 ft. 

Sweet-potato. . 2 ft. X 3 to 4 ft. 

Tomato 4 ft. X 4 to 5 ft. 

Turnip In drills, i^ to 2| ft. apart. 



HORTICULTURE. 65 

QUANTITY OF SEED OF VEGETABLES REQUIRED 
TO SOW AN acre! (Bailey.) 

Asparagus 4 or 5 lbs., or i oz. for 50 ft. 

of drill. 

Beans, dwarf, in drills i| bushels. 

" pole " 10 to 12 quarts. 

Beet, " 5 to 6 lbs. 

Buckwheat, " i bushel. 

Cabbage, in beds to transplant. ^ lb. 

Carrot, in drills 3 to 4 lbs. 

Cauliflower i oz. of seed for 1000 plants. 

Celery 1 oz. of seed for 2000 plants. 

Corn, in hills 8 to 10 quarts. 

Cucumber, in hills 2 lbs. 

Cress, water, in drills 2 to 3 lbs. 

' ' upland, in drills 2 to 3 lbs. 

Egg-plant I oz. of seed for 1000 plants. 

Kale or sprouts 3 to 4 lbs. 

Lettuce i oz. of seed for 1000 plants. 

Melon, musk, in hills 2 to 3 lbs. 

" water, in hills 4 to 5 lbs. 

Mustard, broadcast ^ bushel. 

Onion, in drills 5 to 6 lbs. 

" seed for sets, in drills. .. 30 lbs. 

" sets, in drills 6 to 12 bushels. 

Parsnip, in drills 4 to 6 lbs. 

Peas " I to 2 bushels. 

Potato (cut tubers) 7 bushels. 

Pumpkin, in hills , 4 to 5 lbs. 

Radish, in drills 8 to 10 lbs. 

Sage " 8 to 10 lbs. 

Salsify " 8 to 10 lbs. 

Spinach " 10 to 12 lbs. 

Squash, bush, in hills, 4 to 6 lbs. 

" running, in hills 3 to 4 lbs. 

Tomato, to transplant ^ \h. 

Turnip, in drills i to 2 lbs. 

' ' broadcast 3 to 4 lbs. 

Grass (mixed lawn). 2 to 4 bushels. 



66 



AGRICULTURE. 



DISTANCES APART FOR FRUIT TREES, 

Time Required to Bear Fruit, and Longevity. (Bailey.) 





Usual Distances. 


Time Required to 
Bear. 


Average 
Profitable 
Longevity 
under high 

Culture. 


Apples — 

" dwarf... 


30 to 40 ft. each way. 

TO ft. each way 

4x7 to 6x8 ft 

4x5 feet 


3 yrs. Good crop in 
about 10 years 


25-40 yrs. 


Blackberry 


I yr. Good crop in 
2-3 years 


8-12 yrs. 


Currant 


I yr. Good crop in 
2-3 years 

1 yr. Good crop in 
2-3 years 

2-3 yrs. Good crop 
2-3 years later 

2 yrs. Good crop in 

4 years 

3 or 4 yrs. Fair crop 
in 6-12 years 

t to 3 yrs 

3 yrs. Good crop in 

5 to 6 years 

I yr. Good crop in 

2 or 3 years 

I yr. Heaviest crop 
usually in 2 years. .. 


Gooseberry 

Orange and I 
lemon j . . 

Peach 


4x5 feet 


20 years. 


25 to 30 ft. each way. 

16 to 20 ft. each way. 

20 to 30 ft. each way. 

20 to 25 ft. each way. 
T 6 to 20 ft. each way. 

3x6 feet 

I X 3 or 4 feet 


20 years. 
50 or more. 


Pears 


8-12 yr& 


Persimmon 

Plum 


50-75 yrs. 
25-40 yrs. 


Raspberry . . . 
Strawberry . . . 


20-25 yrs. 
8-12 yrs. 
3 years. 



HORTICULTURE. 67 

AVERAGE YIELDS PER ACRE OF VARIOUS 
CROPS. (Bailey.) 

Apples A tree 20 to 30 years old may be expected 

to yield from 25 to 40 bus. every alter- 
nate year. 

Artichoke 200 to 300 bus. 

Beans, green or 

snap 75 to 120 bus. 

Bean, Lima. ... 75 to 100 bus. of dry beans. 

Beet 400 to 700 bus. 

Carrots 400 to 700 bus. 

Corn 50 to 75 bus., shelled. 

Cranberry 100 to 300 bus. ; goo bus. have been reported. 

Cucumber About 150,000 fruits per acre. 

Currant , . . 100 bus. 

Egg-plant I or 2 large fruits to the plant for the large 

sorts like New York purple, and from 3 
to 8 fruits for the smaller varieties. 

Gooseberry 100 bus. 

Grape 3 to 5 tons. Good raisin vineyards in 

California, 15 years old, will produce 
from 10 to 12 tons. 

Horse-radish. ... 3 to 5 tons. 

Kohlrabi 500 to 1000 bus. 

Onion, from seed 300 to 800 bus.; 600 bus. is a large average 
yield. 

Parsnip 500 to 800 bus. 

Pea, green, in pod 100 to 150 bus. 

Peach In full bearing a peach-tree should produce 

from 5 to 10 bus. 

Pear A tree 20 to 25 years old should give from 

25 to 45 bus. 

Pepper 30,000 to 50,000 fruits. 

Plum 5 to S bus. may be considered an average 

crop for an average tree. 

Potato 100 to 300 bus. 

Quince 200 to 400 bus. 

Raspberry and 

blackberry. ... 50 to 100 bus. 

Salsify 200 to 300 bus. 

Spinach 200 barrels. 

Strawberry 75 to 250 or even 300 bus 

Tomato 8 to 16 tons. 

Turnip 600 to 1000 bus. 



68 



AGRICULTURE. 



RELATION OF SPECIFIC GRAVITY, 

Dry Matter, and Starcli Content of Potatoes. 

(Wolff.) 



Spec. 
Grav. 


Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 


Starch 
Con- 
tent. 


Spec. 
Grav. 


Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 


^rn'n^ Spec. 


Dry 
Sub- 
stance. 


Starch 
Con- 
tent. 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 


1 .080 


19.7 


13-9 


1. 107 


25-5 


19.7 I. 


134 


31-3 


25-5 


.081 


19.9 


14. 1 


.108 


25-7 


19.9 


135 


31-5 


25-7 


.082 


20.1 


M-3 


.109 


25-9 


20.1 


136 


31-7 


25-9 


.083 


20.3 


14-5 


I . no 


26.1 


20. 3 


137 


31-9 


26. 1 


.084 


20.5 


14.7 


. Ill 


26.3 


20.5 


138 


32.1 


26.3 


.085 


20.7 


14.9 


.112 


26.5 


20.7 


139 


32.3 


26.5 


.086 


20.9 


151 


."3 


26.7 


20.9 I 


140 


32-5 


26.7 


.087 


21 2 


15-4 


.114 


26.9 


21. 1 


141 


32.8 


27.0 


.088 


21.4 


15-6 


•"5 


27.2 


21.4 


142 


33-0 


27.2 


.089 


21.6 


15.8 


.116 


27.4 


21.6 


U3 


33-2 


27.4 


1 .090 


21.8 


16.0 


.117 


27.0 


21.8 


144 


33-4 


27.6 


.091 


22.0 


16.2 


.118 


27.8 


22.0 


145 


33-6 


27.8 


.092 


22.2 


16.4 


.119 


28.0 


22.2 


146 


33-8 


28.0 


•093 


22.4 


16 6 


1. 120 


28.3 


22.5 


147 


34-t 


28 3 


.094 


22.7 


16.9 


.121 


28.5 


22.7 


148 


34-3 


28.5 


•095 


22.9 


17. 1 


.122 


28.7 


22.9 


.149 


34-5 


28.7 


.096 


23.1 


17-3 


.123 


28.9 


23.1 I 


150 


34-7 


28.9 


.097 


233 


17-5 


.124 


29.1 


23-3 


•151 


34-9 


29.1 


.098 


23-5 


17.7 


■125 


29-3 


23-5 


.152 


351 


29-3 


.099 


23.7 


17.9 


. 126 


29-5 


23-7 


•153 


35-4 


29.6 


l.IOO 


24.0 


18.2 


.127 


29.8 


24.0 


.154 


35-6 


29.8 


.101 


24.2 


18.4 


.128 


30.0 


24.2 


•155 


35-8 


30.0 


.102 


24,4 


18.6 


. 129 


30.2 


24.4 


.156 


36.0 


30.2 


.103 


24.6 


18 8 


1. 130 


30- 4 


24.6 


•157 


36.2 


30-4 


.104 


24.8 


19.0 


•13^ 


30.6 


24.8 


.158 


36-4 


30.6 


.105 


25 .0 


19.2 


.132 


30.8 


25.0 


•159 


36.6 


30.8 


.106 


25.2 


19.4 


•133 


31.0 


25.2 I 


.160 


36.9 


31-1 



HORTICULTURE. 



69 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY, SUGAR CONTENT, AND 
BOILING-POINT OF MAPLE SUGAR. 

(Cooke and Hills.) 



1 


1 
> 

c5 


.5 V 


nate 
nt of 
ugar. 


u bo 

2.1 




3 . 


.r'OJ ^. 




40 


.= sue/) 


rt 


C 


flj cd 


egrees 
Baum 
drome 


a— 




2 u i- 
at) 3 


empei 
of B 

point, 


.0 


13 0. 


Q 


Q 


< 


H 


Oi 


25 


. 1 . 205 


44.9 


41 


215.0° F. 


lo.olbs. 


68 


26 


I 215 


46.8 


43 


215.1 


10. 1 


72 


27 


1.226 


48.7 


45 


215.3 


10.2 


75 


28 


1.236 


50-5 


47 


215.6 


10.3 


78 


29 


1.246 


52-4 


49 


215-9 


10.4 


82 


30 


1-257 


54-3 


51 


216.2 


lO-S 


85 


31 


1.268 


56.2 


53 


216.6 


10.6 


88 


32 


1.279 


58.1 


54 


217.0 


10.7 


90 


33 


1.290 


60 


56 


217.4 


10.7 


93 


34 


1.302 


62.0 


58 


218. 1 


10.8 


97 


35 


1-313 


63-9 


60 


218.6 


10.9 


100 


36 


1-325 


65.8 


62 


219-5 


II. 


103 


37 


1-337 


67.8 


64 


220.3 


II. I 


107 


38 


1-350 


69.8 


66 


221 .2 


II .2 


no 


S9 


1 .362 


71.8 


68 


222.0 


"•3 


"3 


40 


1-374 


73-7 


70 


223.2 


II. 4 


117 


41 


1-387 


75-7 


72 


224.5 


II. 6 


120 


42 


1.400 


77-7 


74 


326.0 


II. 7 


123 


43 


1-415 


79.8 


75 


227.8 


II. 8 


125 


44 


1.428 


81.8 


77 


229.7 


II. 9 


128 


45 


1.442 


83-9 


79 


231.8 


12.0 


132 


46 


1-457 


86.0 


81 


234.0 


12. 1 


135 


47 


1. 471 


88.1 


83 


236-3 


12.3 


138 


48 


1.486 


90.2 


85 


238.7 


12.4 


142 



** The per cents of sugar given are calculated for a fairly- 
good syrup. The relative values in the last column are 
based on these per cents, but will be nearly the same for 
all except the poorest of syrups. The relative value is 
made use of as follows: A weight of 11 pounds per gallon, 
and 35° Baume is taken as the standard; dividing the 
weight of the syrup by 11 gives the number of standard 
gallons; multiplying the price that is to be paid for 11- 
pound syrup b)^ the relative value figure, and dividing by 
100, gives the price to be paid per standard gallon. 

"Example : If 75 cents a gallon is to be paid for ii-pound 



70 



AGRICULTURE. 



syrup, how much should be paid for 671 pounds of syrup 
testing 31° by the Baume hydrometer? 
671 -T- II = 61 standard gallons. 

75 X 88 -7- 100 = 66 cents per gallon. 

61 X 66 = $41.26, price to be paid." 



WEIGHT OF SUGAR OBTAINED FROM 100 LBS. 
01^ 3IAPl.i: SYR LP 

Weighing 11 lbs. to the Gallon, when Sugared Off at 
Different Temperatures. (Cooke and Hills.) 







^ 


^j 






«^ 




^.£ 


,s 


"u 




^u 


« 


"5; 


^. 




.fiPc 


h 


'v u 


3-5 


"uc 


'^^ 


y u 


2I 


^"1 


^a 




l^ 




?: to 


ti 3 


to 3 


4^ 9 


V 3 


^ 3 


u' 3 


w 9 


p'i^'c 


.V) 






ac/:^- 


.W3 


£<A) 


s^ 


g'cC 


So 


u'H 


^0 


gcG 


t'c 


bee 


> 


H 


< 


£ 


q 


H 


< 


JE 





° Fahr. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


° Fahr. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


232 


82.7 


82.0 


83.3 


238 


79-5 


78.5 


80.7 


233 


81.9 


80.5 


82.8 


239 


79.2 


78 4 


80.3 


234 


81.2 


80.0 


81,9 


240 


78.7 


78.2 


79 7 


235 


80.8 


79-5 


81.6 


241 


78-5 


77-9 


79-3 


236 


80.5 


79-5 


81,1 


242 


78.1 


77-4 


78.9 


237 


80.0 


79 -o 


80.9 











HORTICULTURE. 



71 



Tl.x\IPF:RATUIiES TO WHICH PKRISHABL.E 

(iOODS MAY BP] SUBJECTED WITHOUT IN- 

JUliV. (U. S. Dei'aktment of Agricultuke.) 



Name of Article. 



Apples, in bbls 

" loose 

Apricots, baskets.. 

Asparagus 

Bananas 

Beans, snap 

Beets 

Cabbafje, early or late 

Cantaloupes . 

Cauliflower 

Celery 

Cheese 

Cranberries 

Cucumbers . . 

Ef^j,'s, bbPd or crated 

Fish 

Flowers . . . . 

Grapes 

Kale 

Leek 

Lemons 

Lettuce 

Mandarins 

Milk 

Olives, in bulk 

'' " glass 

Onions, boxes 

Onions 

Oranges 

Parsley 

Parsnips. 

Peaches, fresh.b'skets 

Peas 

Pineapples 

Plums 

Potatoes, Irish 

" sweet 

Radishes 

Rice 

Shrubs, roses, or trees 

Spinach 

Strawberries 

Tangerines 

Thyme. 

Tomatoes, fresh 

Turnips, late. 

Watermelons 



Lowest Outside 
Temperature. 



Pi <u 



^5 



20 

28 

35 
28 

50 
32 
26 

25 

32 






15 
24 



32 
26 
20 
20 
25 
15 
zero 

25 

20 

20 

20 
zero 

20 

20 
zero 

20 

20 

15 
20 
28 

25 
20 

15 
10 
20 
20 
20 
20 
20 
25 
32 
25 
28 

15 
10 
10 
15 
25 
15 

ID 
28 

zero 
10 



a oPh 



°F. 

— 10 

— 10 

ID 



— 10 

zero 



zero 
zero 
zero 
zero 
zero 



zero 
zero 



— 10 
zero 



Pt-3 

<0 -f. 



Remarks. 



Covered with straw. 
Packed in straw. 

In boxes covered with mosn. 
Bulk or boxes with straw. 
In barrels or crates. 
In crates. 
Barrels or crates. 

In barrels with straw. 
Packed in crates. 



In boxes with moss. 

In barrels always iced. 
Packeci in moss. 
Packed in cork. 
Packed in boxes or crates. 
Packed in boxes. 
In boxes or crates. 
In boxes or crates. 
In boxes. 

In barrels. 



In barrels, boxes, or crates. 
Baskets,boxes,bbls.,or crates. 
In baskets. 
In baskets or barrels. 

In baskets or barrels. 

In barrels, crates, or in bulk. 

In boxes with paper. 

In barrels or baskets. 

In barrels or baskets. 

In baskets. 

In baskets or sacks. 

In canvas or sacking. 

In barrels or crates. 

In boxes. 

In small baskets. 

In barrels^ 

/n barrels and in bulk. 



AGRICULTURE. 



VI. SEEDS. 



SEED-TESTING FOR THE FARMER. . 

By Gilbert H. Hicks, in charge of Seed Investigations, U. S. Department 

of Agriculture. 

Not less important than good soil and suitable cultivation 
is seed of the best obtainable quality. In no feature of 
farm practice is niggardly economy or lack of proper atten- 
tion more productive of disappointment and loss than in 
the failure to provide proper seed for sowing. The market 
gardener is fully alive to this fact, and makes the purchase 
of desirable seed his foremost care. He wants not only 
seed which will grow, but also that which will produce an 
even stand and yield a large crop of the very best vegetables. 
The matter of paying a few cents or even a dollar extra 
per pound is to him of no significance, since he knows by 
long experience that the increased value of his crop will 
far outweigh the extra cost of the seed. 

With many farmers this care in the selection of seed is 
often lacking. Frequently the land is all tilled and ready 
for sowing before the seed is bought. It is then too late 
to give it a careful preliminary test, even if the owner de- 
sired to do so. This results very often in a poor stand, 
perhaps in a failure of the crop, or in the scattering of 
hordes of -weeds all over the farm, which usurp the place 
of the cultivated plants, and cost infinite trouble in their 
eradication. This is especially noticeable in the case of 
the clovers, grasses, and other forage plants. No matter 
how poor the seed turns out to be, after once sown it is too 
late to secure any redress from the seedsman. Besides, 
there are very few places in this country where one can 
get seed tested in order that its real value may be ascer- 
tained before sowing. It becomes, then, a matter of great 
importance to the farmer to provide himself with some 



SEEDS. 73 

simple but efficient means for testing his seed before it is 
sown. 

All seed which is to be used for spring sowing should be 
procured whenever possible in the previous fall or winter. 
The long winter months will give ample opportunity for 
close examination of the seed, and if any of it be found of 
inferior quality, as will not infrequently prove to be the case, 
there will be plenty of time to replace it with a desirable 
article. In all cases seed should be bought of the most re- 
liable seedsmen. In many instances it will pay to get seed 
from the large dealers, as they have first-class opportu- 
nities for handling the very best seed in the country. The 
extra cost for carriage will be a small item compared with 
the chance for obtaining good seed. 

No matter from what source the seed is obtained, nor 
how reliable the dealer, every farmer should test each lot 
of seed he expects to plant. Besides learning its quality, 
he will often obtain valuable information concerning the 
depth, temperature, and amount of moisture needed, etc. 
Furthermore, if the seed fails to come up well, the planter 
will have some intelligent data for ascertaining the reason, 
and will not be obliged to depend entirely upon the state- 
ment of seed catalogues, which convey the impression that 
failure to germinate is more likely to be the fault of the 
outdoor conditions than of the seed itself. 

Good seed is marked by three characteristics : purity — 
or freedom from foreign matter, whether seeds of weeds 
or other plants ; vitality— ox capacity for sprouting under 
favorable conditions ; and genuineness — or trueness to 
name. If any of these qualities be lacking, the seed is un- 
worthy of general trial. 

Purity. — Most vegetable seeds, especially if grown in 
America, are quite free from admixture. Seed of the cab- 
bage family, however, if grown abroad, and sometimes 
that of American origin, may contain a mixture of wild 
mustard or similar seed, often so near like the good seed 
as to be almost indistinguishable from it. 

Clover and grass seed is very likely to contain more or 
less seed of noxious weeds or inferior grasses ; hence a 



74 AGRICULTURE. 

careful purity test is necessary in such cases. Hairy vetch 
and other leguminous forage seeds, excepting the clovers, 
generally come from Europe and are frequently impure. 
Often it will require considerable care to detect impurities 
in the seeds of forage plants, and in case of any doubt 
samples of such seed should be sent to the nearest experi- 
ment station or to the Department of Agriculture for ex- 
amination. 

Purity tests are usually made by weighing out a few 
ounces of seed which has been well stirred up so as to 
make the sample uniform. This seed is placed upon a 
pane of glass under which is a piece of light-colored paper, 
and the sample is carefully gone over seed by seed with a 
small forceps until all the impurities are separated out. 
After again weighing, the percentage of impurity is easily 
obtained. If the impurity consists of chaff or dirt, the loss 
will consist only in paying for something which will not 
grow. This will render necessary the sowing of more than 
the usual amount of seed to the acre. If weed seeds are 
present, there will be greater or less loss according to the 
character of the weeds. Such seeds as Canada thistle, 
dodder, Russian thistle, chess, wild mustard, cockle, plan- 
tain, black medic, daisy, penny-cress, wild carrot, wild 
oats, and a few others, are serious pests. Every farmer 
should be able to recognize these weed seeds, and avoid all 
seed which contains any of them even in small amounts. 
He should also be familiar with the ordinary grass seeds of 
trade, such as June grass, orchard grass, the common fes- 
cues, red top, tall meadow oat grass, etc. Grass-seed 
mixtures almost invariably contain a large proportion of 
seed of inferior, if not worthless, species, dirt, and chaff, 
and should be avoided. It is much better to find out what 
grasses are adapted to one's fields or pastures and to buy 
such seed separately, mixing it at home. 

If scales are not at hand, the amount of pure seed in a 
given sample can be approximately learned by placing the 
pure seed in a small bottle with the impurities in another 
bottle of similar shape and size. The names of the foreign 



SEEDS. 75 

seeds may be learned from some botanist or experiment 
station.* 

After determining the per cent of pure seed in a sample, 
the gcrminative ability should be ascertained. This is even 
more important. One can judge fairly well of the purity 
of seed by a casual inspection, but no one can tell by its 
looks whether a seed is capable of sprouting or not. Con- 
sidering the great amount of labor and expense involved, 
it is surprising that so few farmers test their vegetable and 
field seeds before they are sown. 

Even fresh seed is sometimes incapable of germination 
through improper care in harvesting or cleaning. Nor 
can fresh seed be told by its appearance with certainty. 
Add to this the fact that old seed is frequently offered for 
sale, and there is no lack of reason for testing the sprout- 
ing capacity of the seed one intends to sow. 

If the heat and moisture are properly controlled, seed- 
testing will be found a very simple matter. Seventy to 
eighty degrees Fahrenheit must be maintained during the 
day, with a fall of not more than twenty degrees at night, 
and the seed must be kept constantly damp, but not wet. 
A good plan is to plant a hundred seeds of average quality 
— that is, an average number of large, small, plump, and 
shrivelled ones, etc. — in moist soil in a box or in a small 
flower-pot which is set inside of a large pot also containing 
soil. Water as needed is added from time to time in the 
larger pot and the whole is kept covered so as to prevent 
evaporation and sudden cooling. When the seeds begin 



*The following' standards of purity are adopted by the U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture : 

Asparagus, beans, buckwheat, cabbage, cauliflower, celery, 
collards, Indian corn, cow pea, cucumber, eggplant, lettuce, 
melon, millet (common and pearl), oats, okra, onion, peas, 
pumpkin, radish, rutabaga, salsify, squash, tomato, turnip, 

vetch (hairy) 99 per cent. 

Alfalfa, beets, crimson clover, red clover, cotton, Kafir corn, 

parsley 98 " " 

Parsnip 97 " " 

Hungarian brome grass, carrot, white clover, alsike clover... 95 " " 
June grass, poa compressa 90 " " 



76 AGRICULTUEB. 

to come up, the pots should be exposed to the light. After 
about two weeks for most seeds the seedlings are counted 
and the percentage of sprouts ascertained. If the soil has 
been previously heated to kill all weed seeds, and proper 
precautions have been taken, such a test will give a good 
indication of the value of the seed. To make sure, a dupli- 
cate lot of one hundred seeds should be tested at the same 
time under the same conditions and the results compared. 
If the variation exceeds ten per cent, the tests should be 
repeated until the source of error is discovered. Grasses 
and very fine seed will require more care than other kinds. 
Such seed should be barely covered with soil, while in all 
cases too deep planting must be avoided. Some hard- 
coated seeds may be soaked a few hours in warm water, 
but as a usual thing it is better not to do so. 

Seeds of clovers and most vegetables can be easily ger- 
minated between two folds of damp flannel cloth placed be 
tween two plates. Such tests permit frequent inspection 
of the seed, which should be thrown away as fast as it 
germinates, count being kept of the same. Damp blotters, 
porous dishes, and various kinds of especially prepared 
germinating apparatus are sometimes used in seed-testing. 
The amount of moisture to be given varies greatly with 
the variety of seed and can be best learned by experience. 
In general, quick-sprouting seeds, like clover, cabbage, 
radish, etc., will stand more moisture than those varieties 
which sprout more slowly. 

To make sure of the vitality of seed it is better to test it 
in the soil, as previously suggested, and also by the cloth 
or plate method. Soil tests should be continued a few days 
longer than those made between cloth or blotters. There 
is considerable difference of opinion as to the standards of 
germination to which first-class seed should attain. Those 
in use at present by the U. S. Department of Agriculture 
are given in the first table on page 77. While first-class 
seeds should reach the standards referred to, it may be said 
that seed which falls as much as ten per cent below them 
need not be rejected as bad. 



SEEDS. 



TABLE OF GERMINATION STANDARDS. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Seed. 


85 
95 
95 
^50 
95 
85 
95 
95 
95 
85 
85 
65 
65 
85 
90 
80 
90 

95 
80 

95 
90 
90 
90 
90 


Seed. 


90 
80 

94 
92 

50 
75 
75 
80 
50 
80 
80 
50 
90 
90 
90 

85 
90 
90 
90 
90 
90 

95 
90 


Seed. 




Asparagus 


Cucumber 

Egg-plant 


Okra 


90 
85 
75 

75 
98 
85 
90 

95 
95 
8^ 


Beans, bush 


Onion 

Parley 

Parsnip 

Peas 


" lima 


Endive 


Beet 


Gherkin ... 

Grasses: 

English blue 

Fowl meadow. . . 

Johnson 

Hungarian brome 

Kentucky blue. . 

Meadow fescue.. 

Orchard 

Texas blue 

Timothy 

Kafir corn 


Borecole .. 


Broccoli 


Pepper 

Pumpkin 

Radish 

Rape 

Rhubarb 

Rutabaga 

Salsify 

Sorghum 

Spinach 


Brussels sprouts. . . 

Buckwheat 

Cabbage 


Carrot 


Cauliflower 

Celeriac 


95 
8? 
90 

89 
90 
90 
90 
88 


Celery .. 

Chicory 


Clover, alfalfa 


Spurry 

Squash 

Sunflower 

Tobacco 


" alsike. . . . 


Rohl-rabi 


" red 


Leek 


" scarlet ... 


Lettuce 

Lupin yellow. . 

Melon 

Millet, common.... 

" pearl 

Mustard 

Oats 


" white 

Collards 


Tomato 

Turnip 

Vetch, hairy 

Wheat 


90 

95 
90 

95 


Corn 




Cowpea 


Cress 











NUMBER, WEIGHT, COST OF GRASS SEEDS, AND 
A3IOUNT TO SOW PER ACRE. 

(Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

[Columns i, 2, 3, and 4 are compiled from " The Best Forage Plants," by 
Stebler and Schroeter. The figures in column 5 are obtained by multi- 
plying the amount of standard quality of seed required (col. 2) by the retail 
price quoted in N. Y. catalogues. The weight of 10,000,000 grains (col. 6) 
is obtained by dividing this quantity by the number of seeds in one pound 
(col. i).] 



h 







(i) 


(2) 
& -a 


> '-T3 


(4) 


(5) 


(6) 






XJ-O* 


e i- 


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Name. 


tnber of 
ains per 1 
Pure See 


ount to S 
er Acre i 
., Standa 
Quality. 


ount toS 
sr Acre i 
of PureG 
ating Se 


Wi 

J2x: 

.5*3 


•0 

1- 


ight of 
0,000,000 
rains, lbs 







^0^ 


< ~ 


< £ S 


8-32 




s"-o 


1 


Redtop (Agrostis alba') . . . 


603,000 


9-7 


7.00 


$1.45 


16.58 


2 


Reed canary grass (Pha- 
















laris arundinacea) 


660,000 


21.0 


12.00 


44-48 


7-35 


T5-'5 


.3 


Smooth - stalked meadow 
















grass (Poa pratensis) 


2,400,000 


17-5 


8.40 




2.10 


4.17 


4 


Rougli -stalked meadow 
















grass (Poa trivialis) 


3,000,000 


19-5 


8.75 


II-I7 


4.88 


3-33 



78 



AGRICULTURE. 



I 



NUMBER, WEIGHT, COST OF GRASS SEEDS, AND 
AMOUNT TO SOW PER ACBM—Contumed. 



Name. 



Sheep's fescue (Festuca 

ovina) 

Various-leaved fescue (Fes- 
tuca heterophylla) 

Creeping- fescue (Festuca 

rubra) 

Awnless brome grass (Bro- 

mus inermis) 

Perennial rye grass (Lolium 

perenne) .. 

Italian rye grass (Lolium 

italicum) 

Orchard grass (Dactylis 

glomerata) 

Meadow fescue (Festuca 

pratensis) 

Meadow oat grass (Arrhe- 

natherum avenaceum). . . 
Yellow oat grass (Trisetum 

flavescens) .^ 

Velvet grass (Holcus lana- 

tus) 

Timothy (Phleum pratense) 
Meadow fo.xtail (Alopecu 

rus pratensis) 

Vernal grass (Anthoxan 

thum odoratum) 

Crested dog's tail (Cynosu. 

rus cristatus) 

Alsike clover (Trifolium 

hybridum) 

Sainfoin (Onobrychis sa- 

tiva) 

Red clover (Trifolium pra- 
tense) 

White clover (Trifolium 

repens) 

Common kidney vetch (An- 

thyllus vulneraria) 

Alfalfa, or lucern (Medi- 

cago sativa) 

Trefoil (Medicago lupulina) 
Bird's-foot trefoil (Lotus 

corniculatus) 

Officinal goat's rue (Galega 

officinalis) 



(I) 

<«-l Wi CI 

o <uin 

4) tn u 
XI C 3 

;?;0 o 



(2) 

O - V- 

C/3.5 rt 

S « c >> 

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680,000 

400,000 

600,000 

137,000 

336,800 

285,000 

579»5oo 

318,200 

159,000 

2,045,000 

1,304,000 
1,170,500 

907,000 

924,000 

1,127,000 

707,000 

22,500 

279,000 

740,000 

154,000 

209,500 
328,000 

375,000 

62,000 



2».0 

33-5 
42.5 
44.0 

55-0 

48.5 

35-0 

52.0 

70.0 

29.0 

22.0 
16.0 

23.0 

30.0 

25.0 

12.3 

78.0* 

18.0 

TO. 5 

17-5 

25.0 
18.0 

II. o 

22.0 



^ D D bX) 
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3 ^ =■■:= 



(4) 






12.60 

19-50 
13.00 
35-6o 
38.50 
32.40 



10-15 



34-30 

4.64 

8.80 
14.00 



10-15 



18-30 

12-24 

12-16 

12-26 

10 

5-5 

6.5 



6.21 6 

7-8o j 

13.50 [20-32 
9.00 94-100 



60.84* 


40 


15.84 


64 


7-50 


63 


15.00 


60-64 


22.00 

14-75 


61-63 

64-66 


4.67 


60 


6.90 





(5) 



in 4) 

c3^ 



(6) 



^ O tn 
^ o'c 

^20 



14-85 

25.00 
16.67 

72.99 

29.70 
35- 10 

17-25 
31.42 
62.89 

4.89 

7.66 
8.54 

11.02 
10.82 

8.87 
14.14 
444.44 
35-84 
13-51 
67-15 
48.56 

30.48 
26.66 

161.29 



* Unshelled. 



i 



SEEDS. 79 

NOTES ON ADAPTABILITY AND USES OF PRE- 
CEDING GRASSES AND CLOVERS. 

No. I. Requires moist climate or damp soil. Best propa- 
gated by transplanting small turf cuttings in autumn. 
Valuable for late pasturage or lawns in the New England 
and Middle States. Use 5-10 per cent in mixtures. 

No. 2. Adapted to stiff, wet lands and flooded fields. 
Requires moisture. Valuable hay when cut young, and 
well suited for binding loose banks near running water or 
for forming a firm sod on marshy ground. 

No. 3.' Grows best on strongly calcareous soils. Well 
adapted for pasture, and makes a good bottom grass for 
meadows. An excellent lawn grass. 

No. 4. Should be sown only on moist, fertile, and shel- 
tered soils in mixtures. 

No. 5. Light, dry soils, especially those which are poor, 
shallow, and silicious. Valuable bottom grass and for sheep 
pastures. Sown only in mixtures. 

No. 6. Best on moist, low lands containing humus and 
sandy loams. Withstands drought; useful in pasture; un- 
important for hay. Alone it makes no continuous turf. 

No. 7. Valuable pasture or bottom grass. Withstands 
drought; endures both cold and shade. On poor land, es- 
pecially moist sands and railway banks, serves to bind the 
soil. Product small. 

No. 8. Valuable for light soils, especially in regions sub- 
ject to extremes of heat or long periods of drought. Used 
alone or in mixtures for permanent meadows and pastures. 

No. 9. Excellent and lasting pasture grass for heavy soils 
in moist, cool climates. On light, dry soils disappears after 
the second year. Rarely sown alone. 

No. 10. Excellent for rich and rather moist lands. Re- 
garded in Europe as one of the best for hay. Lasts only 
two or three years. 

No. II. Grows well on any soil, excepting that which is 
very wet; withstands shade. Affords a large amount of 
aftermath. Valuable alike for hay and pasturage. 

No. 12. Thrives in either dry or wet soils. Valuable hay 
pt pasture grass. 



80 AGRICULTURE. 

No. 13. Thrives on moist, loamy sands or light clays 
which are not too moist, and marls. Spring most favorable 
seed-time. Valuable in the South for hay and winter 
pasture. 

No. 14. Valuable for temporary or permanent pastures. 
Thrives on marly or calcareous soil, in all light land rich in 
humus. 

No. 15. Sometimes sown on light, thin soils unsuited 
for more valuable sorts. Rarely used excepting in mix- 
tures. 

No. 16. Best known and most extensively cultivated for 
hay. Sown alone or mixed with redtop or clover. Suc- 
ceeds best on moist loams or clays. On dry ground the 
yield is light. 

No. 17. Endures cold. Likes strong soil, stiff loam, or 
clay. One of the best grasses for land under irrigation. 
Very early. Two to four pounds in mixtures for permanent 
pastures. 

No. 18. Grows on almost any kind of soil; sown only in 
mixtures, i to 2 pounds, with permanent pasture or meadow 
grasses. 

No. 19. Especially adapted for loams, light clays, marls, 
and moist, loamy sands. Moist climates are most suitable. 
Withstands drought and thrives well in shade. Nutritive 
value high. Used in mixtures to form bottom grass either 
in pasture or hay. 

No. 20. Grows on strongest clay or peaty soil; peculiarly 
adapted to damp ground. Bears heavy frosts without 
injury. Sown in August or February. 

No. 21. Requires good and open subsoil, free from water. 
Sown alone, from end of March to beginning of May. 

No. 22. Succeeds best in rich, loamy soil, on good clays, 
and on soils of an alluvial nature. A standard fodder 
plant. 

No. 23. Thrives on mellow land containing lime, and on 
all soils rich in humus. Resists drought. Generally used 
in mixtures for pastures or lawns. 

No. 2^. Cultivated for grazing; on warm soils, if manured 



SEEDS. 81 

and of proper depth. Hardy; resists drought. Sheep, 
goats, and horned cattle eat it greedily. 

No. 25. Grows well on any calcareous soil having a per- 
meable subsoil. Especially adapted to the warm and dry 
regions of the West and Southwest. Requires irrigation. 

No. 26. Any soil containing sufficient moisture and lime 
is suitable. Most successful on clay marls. Cultivated 
only where the better kinds of clover cannot be grown. 

No. 27. Thrives on dry or moist, sandy or clayey soils. 
Well suited to dry lands at high elevations, though poor. 

No. a8. Excellent fodder plant for warm, sheltered situ- 
ations. Thrives only in deep soil, and when subsoil is not 
wet. 



82 



AGRICULTURE. 



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EKEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 87 



VIII. ENEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 

TREATMENTS FOR INJURIOUS INSECTS AND 
FUNGOUS DISEASES OF PLANTS. 

By Prof. E. S. Goff, of Wisconsin Experiment Station. 
The value of the following treatments for preventing injury 
to crops from insects and fungous diseases has been proved by 
abundant experience. It is essential that the treatments be 
given promptly and thoroughly. In the case of fungous dis- 
eases, it is generally essential that the applications be made 
before the disease appears, since they are preventive, rather than 
curative. The treatments considered most important are printed 
in italics. As a rule, those not so printed need be given only 
in seasons or localities in which the attack is serious.* 

Formulas. 

No. I. Bordeaux Mixttire. — Place 6 pounds of copper sulfate 
in a cloth sack and suspend this over night in a wood vessel 
containing 4 gallons of water, immersing the sack. In another 
wood vessel slake 4 pounds of fresh lime in as many gallons of 
water. When the lime is cool, pour it and the copper sulfate 
solution into a barrel and add enough water to make 40 gallons. 
Apply at once with a force-pump, with spraying nozzle, stir- 
ring frequently during the application. 

No. 2. Ammoniacal Copper Carbonate. — Dissolve i ounce of 
copper carbonate in 3 pints of strong ammonia and add this 
solution to 25 gallons of water. Apply as in No. i. No stir- 
ring is required. 

No. 3. Copper Sulfate Solution. — Dissolve, as directed in No. 
I, I pound of copper sulphate in 15 gallons of water. Apply 
as in No 2. 

No. 4. Stir 4 ounces of Paris green in 40 gallons of water, 
and add \ pound of fresh lime, slaked in 2 quarts of hot 
water. Apply as in No. i. 

No. 5. Bordeaux Mixture (^o. i), with Paris green added at 
the rate of i ounce to 10 gallons. Apply as in No. i. 

* The following scheme for treating crops is after a plan published by 
Mr. E. G. Lodeman, of Cornell University, in Trans. N. Y. State Agri- 
cultural Society for i8q3, pp. 176-179. 



88 



AGRICULTURE. 



No. 6. London purple, 4 ounces, very thoroughly mixed with 
25 pounds of land plaster. Apply with a sprinkiing-box. 

No. 7. Mix I ounce of fresh powdered white hellebore in 3 
gallons of water. Apply at once with force-pump or sprinkling 
pot. 

No. 8. Kerosene Emulsion. — Dissolve \ pound hard, or i 
quart of soft soap in 2 quarts of boiling water; add i pint of 
kerosene and pour at once into a tin can; cork, and shake 
rapidly for 15 seconds. Before using, dilute with its own bulk 
of warm soft-water. Apply as in No. 2. 

No. 9. Mix I pound of fresh Pyrethrum powder with an equal 
bulk of air-slaked lime in a bottle or tin can; cork tightly and 
leave 24 hours before use. Apply in still air, with sprinkling- 
box or powder-bellows. 

No. 10. Air-slaked lifue applied with the sprinkling-box. 

No. II. Cut small cards from thin tarred paper, slit one side 
to the centre, and make a short cross-cut near the end of the 
slit, as in drawing. 



^ 




No. 12. Corrosive Subliviate Solution. — Dissolve i\ ounces 
of corrosive sublimate in 2 gallons of hot water, and pour 
this solution into 13 gallons of cold water. Use wood, 
earthen, or glass vessels. 

No. 13. Potassium Sulfid Sohition. — Dissolve \ ounce of 
potassium sulfid (liver of sulfur, sulfuret of potassium) 
in I quart of warm (not hot) water, and add this solution to 
3 quarts of cold water. Apply as in No. 2. 



EN"EMIES OF FAKM CROPS. 



89 



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ENEMIES OF FAKM CROPS. 



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92 AGRICULTURE. 

FIGHTING THE CHINCH-BUG BY MEANS OP 
KEROSENE EMULSION. (Goff.) 

Experiments have established the fact that with thorough 
work according to the directions given below the kerosene 
emulsion will prevent the invasion of cornfields by chinch- 
bugs, even though the bugs appear in great numbers. 

Hozv to Make and Apply the Kerosene Ennilsion. — Slice half 

pound of common bar soap, put it in a kettle with one gal- 
lon of soft water, and boil until dissolved ; put two gallons 
of kerosene in a churn or stone jar, and to it add the boiling- 
hot soap solution ; churn from twenty to thirty minutes, 
when the whole will appear creamy. If properly made, no 
oil will separate out when a few drops of the emulsion are 
placed on a piece of glass. To each gallon of the emulsion 
add eight gallons of water and stir. Apply with a sprink- 
ling-pot. 

Every farmer should learn to make this emulsion, as it is 
a most useful insecticide. It is especially valuable for kill- 
ing lice on cattle and hogs. Paris green will not kill chinch- 
bugs. 

The bugs will be very likely to enter cornfields border- 
ing grainfields, after the grain is cut. Before they have 
had time to do this plough a deep furrow along the side of 
the field they will enter, and throw into it stalks of green 
corn. When the bugs have accumulated on the corn, 
sprinkle with the emulsion. Put in fresh stalks and sprinkle 
whenever the bugs accumulate. If they break over the 
barrier, as they probably will, run a few furrows a few 
rows back in the field, and repeat. When they have at- 
tacked stalks of standing corn, destroy by sprinkling. 

If the remedy is tried, it should be used persistently. To 
kill one lot of bugs and then stop will do little or no good. 
When the bugs threaten to destroy as much as five or ten 
acres, it will pay for one or two men to devote their whole 
time to the warfare. Only a part of each day, however, 
will be needed. Some corn will be lost at best but the most 
of the field should be saved. 



^ 



EKEMIES OF FARM CROPS. 



93 



A CHEAP ORCHARD-SPRAYING OUTFIT. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

Spraying to control various insect pests, particularly those 
of the orchard and garden, has reached so satisfactory and 
inexpensive a basis that it is recognized by every progres- 
sive farmer as a nec- 
essary feature of the 
year's operations, and 
in the case of the apple, 
pear, and plum crops 
the omission of such 
treatment means seri- 
ous loss. The conse- 
quent demand for 
spraying apparatus has 
been met by all the 
leading pump manufac- 
turers of this country, 
and ready-fitted appa- 
ratus, consisting of 
pump, spray tank or 
barrel, and nozzle with 
hose, are on the market 
in numerous styles and 
at prices ranging from 

$20 upward. The cost of a spraying outfit for orchard 
work may, however, be considerably reduced by purchasing 
merely the pump and fixtures, and mounting them at home 
on a strong barrel. An apparatus of this sort, representing 
a style that has proven very satisfactory in practical ex- 
perience, is illustrated in the accompanying figure. It is 
merely a strong pump with an air-chamber to give a steady 
stream, provided with two discharge hose-pipes. One of 
these enters the barrel and keeps the water agitated and 
the poison thoroughly intermixed, and the other and longer 
one is the spraying hose and terminates in the nozzle. The 
spraying-hose should be about 20 feet long, and may be 
fastened to a light pole, preferably of bamboo, to assist in 




Orchard-spraying Apparatus. 



94 • AGRICULTURE. 

directing the spray. The nozzle should be capable of 
breaking the water up into a fine mist spray, so as to wet 
the plant completely with the least possible expenditure of 
liquid. The two more satisfactory nozzles are those of the 
Nivcr and the Vermorel type. A suitable pump with nozzle 
and hose may be obtained of any pump manufacturer or 
hardware dealer at a cost of from $13 to $15. If one with 
brass fittings be secured it will also serve for the application 
of fungicides. The outfit outlined above may be mounted 
on a cart or wagon, the additional elevation secured in this 
way facilitating the spraying of trees, or for more extended 
operations, the pump may be mounted on a large water 
tank. 



FORESTRY. 95 

IX. FORESTRY. 

FORESTRY FOR FARMERS. 

By B, E. Fernow, Chief Division of Forestry, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture. 

There has been much talk about forestry, but there has 
been little application of the teachings of that science. 
This is easily explained as far as the lumbermen are con- 
cerned, who are in the business of making money by cutting 
the virgin woods, similar to the mining of ore, but it is less 
intelligible with the farmer, who is presumed to be in the 
business of making money by.the production and harvesting 
of crops, which he grows on the soil of his farm. 

That his wood-lot could and should by him be also treated 
as a crop seems rarely to have entered his mind. Whether 
he starts out, as in the prairie portions of the State, by 
planting a grove, or whether he cuts his wood from the 
virgin growth which he left after clearing enough for field 
and meadow, in either case he should fully realize that he 
is dealing with a valuable crop, which requires and will 
pay for the attention and application of knowledge in its 
management, such as a husbandman will give to it. 

The Wisconsin farmer, just as his neighbor in Minnesota, 
living in a State largely covered with timber of great value, 
has special reason to practise the principles of forestry in 
order to get the most out of this part of the property both 
for the present and the future. And those who are located 
in the prairie portions have no less need of maintaining a 
forest growth on some part of their farm as a matter of 
proper management of their resources. 

The first thing, as with every other crop, that will have to 
be decided is on what portions of the farm this wood-crop 
is best propagated. In deciding about the location of the 
wood-lot the farmer must keep in mind : 

I. That wood will grow on almost any soil, which is unfit 
for agricultural use ; that, although it grows best on the 



96 AGRICULTURE. 

best sites, it is to be mainly considered and used as a " stop- 
gap" to make useful those parts which would otherwise be 
waste. 

2. That a forest growth, besides furnishing useful material, 
is a condition of soil-cover which affects other conditions, 
namely, of climate and water-flow, and hence its location 
should be such as to secure the most favorable influence on 
these. 

3. That the wood-crop does not live on the soil, but on the 
air, enriching the soil in nutritive elements by its decaying 
foliage rather than exhausting it, and hence that no ma- 
nuring and no rotation of crops is necessary as in field 
crops; in other words, the location of the wood-crop can be 
made permanent. 

A wood growth should therefore be maintained on the 
farm : 

a. Wherever the ground is too wet or too dry, too thin 
or too rocky or too steep, for comfortable ploughing and for 
farm crops to do well, or for pasturage to last long, or, in 
general, where the ground is unfit for field and meadow. 

b. On the highest portions of the farm, the tops of hills 
and also in belts along the hillsides, so as to interrupt con- 
tinuous slopes, which might give rise to such a rush of 
surface-waters as to gully the ground and make it unfit for 
field crops or pasture ; the gentler slopes which are liable 
to washing should at least be kept in grass or terraced for 
crops to prevent the rush of surface-waters. 

c. Along watercourses, where narrower or wider belts of 
timber should be maintained to prevent undermining of 
banks and washing of soil into the streams if ploughed too 
close to the border ; the shade of a forest growth would 
also check rapid evaporation of smaller watercourses. 

d. Wherever the protection by a wind-break against cold 
or hot winds is desirable, for which purpose the timber belt 
is of more far-reaching effect than the wind-break of a single 
row of trees ; the reduced evaporation from the fields due 
to this protection has been known to increase the yield of 
field crops by as much as 25 per cent. 

f. On all unsightly places, which impair the general 



i'OKESTKY. 97 

aspect of the farm — and there are few farms without these 
— a few trees, a small grove, will add to the thrifty appear- 
ance of the farm, make useful the otherwise waste spots, 
and serve as shelter to grazing cattle, etc. 

Altogether, the farmer should realize that husbandry of 
soil and water is the secret of future success, and that 
successful water management is best attained by the main- 
tenance of properly located and well-managed forest areas. 

There is much extravagant talk about the influence of 
forests on climate and on rainfall especially. We have but 
little definite knowledge on these subjects, but it takes no 
expert, only a little observation, to appreciate the effects of 
a wind-breaking timber belt on one's own feeling, and it 
takes but little reasoning to appreciate that the field crop 
in the shelter of the timber belt participates in this feeling. 
The dry winds are the great bane of field crops in the West, 
because they dissipate the moisture ; a timber belt breaks 
their force and reduces thereby their evaporating power. 

Just so it takes no great philosopher to see that when 
rain falls on naked ground it compacts that ground and by 
and by prevents itself from penetrating; the water is forced 
to drain up superficially and rapidly, instead of sinking into 
the ground and remaining there for the use of field crops. 
And that the washing and gullying of the soil is also a result 
of this rushing off of surface-waters, due to the clearing 
away of its plant-cover, requires no wise man to point out ; 
every farmer experiences it more or less every year. 

That any one farmer's neglect or the devastation of any 
small part of the forest growth should have an influence on 
the rainfall or climate of the whole country nobody should 
claim; but the conditions surrounding each particular farm, 
its local climate, soil, and water conditions, are changed, 
and finally the aggregate changes make themselves felt over 
the whole state. 

Now as to the management of the wood-lot a few hints 
may be acceptable. The farmer may not necessarily employ 
the finer methods of managing the wood-crop, but by the 
mere application of common sense and a little knowledge 
of tree-life he may do better than he does at present, 



98 AGRICULTURE. 

He should at least observe the following rules : 

1. Fire should be carefully kept out of the wood-lot, 
for it has in no way a beneficial effect. It kills not only the 
undergrowth, which is desirable because it helps to shade 
the soil, and injures, if it does not kill, the young tree 
growth, which is to take the place of the older growth, but 
the worst effect is that it consumes the vegetable mould 
which has accumulated by the fall and decay of leaves, 
twigs, and other vegetation, and which forms the manure, 
the fertility, of the soil. Fire is to be used only when 
through bad management or otherwise a dense undesirable 
undergrowth has come in, which it is too expensive to re- 
move in other ways when the time for natural reproduction 
has come or planting is to be done. It must then be used 
with caution in early spring or late fall, before the brush is 
too dry, when the fire will smoulder rather than burn 
fiercely and can be kept within bounds. 

2. Cattle must be kept out where young forest growth is 
to be fostered. Sheep and goats especially are of no benefit 
to wood-crops, but horses and cattle may be allowed to 
browse through the wood-lot where the young growth has 
passed out of their reach. Pigs are a benefit by working 
over the ground and thereby burying seeds, especially 
acorns ; but after the seed is so brought under ground 
where a young crop is expected to be reared next year they 
must be kept out. Altogether, the cattle and farm animals 
should be kept where you want them, and not where you 
do not want them. Sometimes, however, the roaming of 
cattle may be beneficial by keeping down too dense im- 
penetrable underbrush in young sapling growth. 

It is better to so cut and manage the old timber that a 
desirable new growth will spring up than to cut clean and 
replant. Planting should be done only where there is no 
desirable natural tree growth. Hence where there is a well- 
established wood-lot, the whole management of the crop 
consists in proper cutting. 

How this is best done cannot be described readily within 
the short space of this article, but every farmer who is 
interested in learning the principles of using the axe to 



FORESTRY. 



99 



advantage in reproducing a wood crop or how to establish 
a wood-lot can obtain from the U. S. Department of Agri- 
culture, free of charge, a pamphlet entitled "Forestry for 
Farmers," in which in plain language is discussed in detail 
how trees and forests grow, how to start a wood-crop, and 
how to manage the wood-lot. 

It does not exhaust the subject, but merely teaches the 
first steps, and the thinking farmer will find his way of step- 
ping farther. 



NUMBER OF TREES ON AN ACRE. (Egleston.) 

The number of trees needed to plant an acre of ground, 
at various distances apart, is as follows: 



2 ft. apart each way 10,890 

by 2 ft 7,260 

apart each way 4,840 
2,722 



3 
3 
4 
5 
6 
8 
10 



1.742 

1,210 

680 

435 



12 ft. 


apart each way. . 


• 302 


15 " 




. 200 


18 " 




• 135 


20 " 




. no 


22 " 




. 90 


25 " 




• 70 


30 " 




. 50 



Rows six feet apart, and trees one foot apart in the row, 
7260 trees per acre. 

Rows eight feet apart, and one foot apart in the row^ 
5445 trees per acre. 

Rows ten feet apart, and one foot apart in the row, 4356 
trees per acre. 

One mile of wind-breaks or shelter-belt requires 528c 
trees, or cuttings for a single row one foot apart in the row. 



100 



AGRICULTURE. 



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a 



FORESTRY. 



103 



STATES AXD TERRITORIES OBSERVING ARBOR 
DAY, WITH DATES. (U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 





Year of 




States. 


First Ob- 
servance. 


Time of Observance. 


Alabama 


1887 
1890-91 

1886 


22d of February. 

First Friday after ist of February. 


Arizona 


Arkansas 


California 




Colorado 


1885 


Third Friday in April. 


Connecticut ...... 


1887 


In spring, at appointment of governor. 


Florida 


1886 
1887 


January 8. 


Georgia 


First Friday in December. 


Idaho 


1886 


Last Monday in April. 


Illinois 


1888 


Date fixed by governor and superintend- 
ent of public instruction. 






Indiana 


1884 


1 Date fixed by superintendent of public 
instruction. 




Iowa 


1887 


j Do. 


Kansas 


1875 

1886 

1888-89 


Option of governor, usually in April. 
Do. 


Kentucky 


Louisiana 


Option of parish boards. 


Maine 


1887 


Option of governor. 


Maryland 


1889 
1886 


Option of governor, in April. 
Last Saturday in April. 


Massachusetts. ... 


Michigan 


1885 


Option of governor. 


Minnesota 


1876 


Do. 


Mississippi 


1802 


Option of board of education. 


Missouri 


1886 


First Friday after first Tuesday in April, 
Third Tuesday of April, 


Montana 


1887 


Nebraska 


1872 
1887 
1886 


22d of April. 


Nevada 


Option of governor. 
Do. 


New Hampshire... 


New Jersey 


1884 


Option of governor, in April. 


New Mexico 


1890 


Second Friday in March. 


New York 


1889 ! 


First Friday after May i. 


North Carolina 


1893 1 




North Dakota 


1884 


6th of May. by proclamation of governor. 


Ohio 


1882 


In April, by proclamation of governor. 


Oklahoma 






Oregon 


1889 
1887 1 


Second Friday in April. 
Option of governor. 


Pennsylvania 


Rhode Island. . . 


1887 1 


Do 


South Carolina 


Uncertain.! 


Variable. 


South Dakota 


1884 1 


Option of governor. 


Tennessee 


1875 

i 


November, at designation of county sup- 
erintendents. 




Texas 




22d of February. 
Option of governor. 


Vermont 


1885 


Virginia 


1892 
1883 


West Virginia 


Fall and spring, at designation of super- 






intendent of schools. 


Wisconsin 


1889 


Option of governor. 


Wyoming 


1888 


Do. 


Washington 


1892 


Do. 



104 



AGRICULTURE. 



FOREST FIRE JLAWS IN THE UNITED STATES. 

(Fernow.) 

(See p. io6 for penalties imposed.) 



State. 




Edition of 
Code. 


Title. 


Chapter. 


Section. 


Alabama 




C. C. 1886 






4226-8 
1580-4 

384 

1414 15, 17-18 

1458, 1460-2 


Arkansas* 

California^. ... 


S. & H.'s D. 

1894 

P. C. 1886 

Mills, G. S. 

1891 

G. S. 1888. .. . 
Vol. XVIII. .. 


10 
1 


48 


Colorado 


36 

99 
93 


Connecticut^. . . 
Delaware* 


j 

19 


Florida 


Laws 1879 .... 




3141 
1456-9 
6921 
18 


Georgia^ 


1882 




10 

38 

5 
3 


Idaho 


R. S. 1887 

R. S. i8qs 


9 


Illinois 


Indiana 


R. S. 1894 . . . 
McLean's, 1888 
C. L. 1889. .... 


24 




Iowa 


5185-92 
7276-8 

5-6 
817 

5 


Kansas 


Kentucky 


G. S. 1888 

1884 




29 


Louisiana , 


Maine 


Laws 1891 ... . 




100 

163 

328 

95 
29 
47 


Maryland. 8 
Massachusetts''. 


■i 


Sup. 1888 




Michigan^ 

Minnesota* .... 


Howell's A. S. 

1882 

G. S. 1878 


t 


9402-4 
6 


Mississippi 


1892 




1091 
3613 


Missouri 


R. S. 1889 











1 S. 1847: Burning ofif permitted when consent of neighbors is secured 
after i day's notice. 

^ Pol. Code, S. 3344-5 : Persons firing woods, etc., liable in treble dam- 
ages. Constable, etc., may order any inhabitants liable to poll-tax to 
assist in extinguishing fire. 

3 Must give notice, before burning off, to all residents within one mile, 
and can only be done between February 15 and March 31, unless otherwise 
ordered by county commissioner. 

* Prohibits building fire in woods without owner's permission, and with- 
out first clearing away combustibles, and extinguishing fire. 

^ Must give I day's notice, before burning off, to adjoining property 
owners, and then only betwen Feb. 20 and April i. 

^ No law included in Revised Statutes. 

"^ Ch. 296, S. 1-6, G. S. 1883 : Duty of fire wardens to post warnings, 
extinguish fires, and investigate causes of fires. 

8 Supervisors and highway commissioners to order assistance in putting 
out fires; fine $5-$5o for refusal to assist. 

' See act of April 18, 1895. 



FORESTRY. 105 

FOREST-FIKE LtAWS— Continued. 



State. 



Montana'" 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire . 

New Jersey!' 

New York 

North Carolina'''. 
North Dakota. . . 

Ohio's 

Oregon'* 

Pennsylvania. . .. 

Rhode Island.. . . 
South Carolina'5. 
South Dakota. . 

Tennessee'* 

Texas 

Utah'7 

Vermont 

Virginia 

West Virginia . . . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming'^ 

Arizona 

New Mexico .... 

Oklahoma'* 



Edition of 
Code. 



1883. 



P. C. 1895. 
1895... .,.. 
G. S. 1885. 
P. S. 1891. 

R. S. 1877. 

R. S 

Vol. I 
1895 . . 
R. S. 1894. 
Sess. 1893. 

1894. •••• 

G. S. 1886. 
1893.. .... 

Dak. Ter., 
M.«&V. C. 
P. C. 1889. 
C. L. 1888. 



1887, 



R. S. 1889. 
R. S. 1887. 
R. S. 1887. 



1893. 



Title. 



Fire. 
14 



Crim. Stat. 



17 
10 
32 



Chapter. 



c. c. 9-62 



277 



P. C. 40 



279 
101 



213 
181 



\ "5. I 
I 37 entire. ( 



Section. 



1071-2 

6713 

4794 
3-7 
I and sup- 
plements. 

52-4 

7314-15 

6334 

Page 45 

Act of June 

II, 1879-81 

6 

i5'-7 
2398 
2277-8 

669-70 
4576 
4934 
3701-2 

81-84 
4406 

920-2 

608-9 
23«3-M 
2269-70 



'0 Penalty for failing to extinguish camp-fire or malicious firing of woods, 
fine not exceeding $5000, or imprisonment not exceeding 5 years, or both. 

" Ch. 188, G. P. Laws 1888, provides detectives for violators of fire 
law. Ch. 119, Laws 1892, and Ch. 194, Laws 1894, provide for fire mar- 
shals and define their duties. 

'2 Fine $10 for leaving unextinguished camp-fire. Two days' notice in 
writing before firing one's own woods. 

'3 S. 4750-1: Penalty for refusing to assist in extinguishing fires, fine $10. 

'4 Requires governor to issue proclamation annually July i, warning 
people against forest fires. 

's If turpentine farm, fine $500, or penitentiary i year. 

'8 Owner may fire his own woods after two days' notice to neighbors. 

'■^ Ch. 27, Laws 1892: Duty of county sheriffs to extinguish fires. 

'8 Permits firing grass and sage-bush March, April, and October, if kept 
within control. 

19 Camp-fires, and regulations for burning off prairies, etc., Ch. 37 (enacted 
1890) provides penalties for setting fires and failure to extinguish. 



106 AGRICULTURE. 

FOREST-FIRE JuAT^S— Continued. 

PENALTY PRESCRIBED BY STATE LAWS. 

Alabama. — Fine $io-$2oo ; if turpentine forest, |ioo-$iooo, or hard 
labor for not more than 12 months. 

Arkansas. — Fine $25-$3oo, or jail 10-60 days. Liable for double 
damages. 

California .—Y'lTiQ not more than $1000, or jail not more than i year, or 
both. 

Color ado. ~¥\nt $50-^300, or jail 15 days to 3 months, or both If on State 
lands, $5o-$5oo, or jail 20 days to 6 months. 

C^««^<:^/c:?//.— Fine $2o-$2oo, or jail 2-6 months, or both. Fine $i-$5o, 
or jail not more than 30 days. 

Delaware. — Fine $25. 

Florida. — ¥\ne not more than $100, or jail not more than 60 days. 

Georgia. — Fine not more than $1000, or i year in chain-gang, or both. 

Idaho. — Misdemeanor. 

Illijiois.— Fine $5-$ioo. 

Indiana.— Fine $5-$ioo, towh'ich may be added imprisonment not more 
than 30 days. 

Iowa. — Fine not exceeding $500, or jail not exceeding i year. 

Kansas. — Fine $5o-$5oo, or jail 10 days to 6 months, or both. 

Kentucky. — Fine $100, or in discretion of jury. 

Louisiana.— Fine f5-$5oo. 

Maine. — Fine not exceeding $100, or jail not exceeding 30 days, or both. 

Massachusetts .—Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 6 months. 

Michigan.— Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 1 year, or 
both. 

Minnesota. — State prison 6 months to 2 years. 

Mississippi. — Fine $2o-$5oo, or jail not more than 3 months, or both. 

Missouri — Fine not more than $500, or jail not more than 12 months. 

Montana.— FinQ not more than $1000, or jail not more than i year. 

Nebraska. — Fine Ss-Sioo, and jail 1-6 months. 

Nevada. — Fine $2oo-$iooo, or jail 10 days to 6 months, or both. 

New Hampshire. — Fine $io-$2ooo7t)r imprisonment not more than 3 
years. 

New /ersey.— Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than i year, or 
both. 

Nfw York.— Fine not exceeding $1000, or imprisonment not exceeding 
I year. 

North Carolina —Fine $50. 

North Dakota.— ^i\[\i\. a misdemeanor ; negligent, fine Sio-Sioo. 

Ohio.— Fine not more than $100, or jail not more than 20 days, or both. 

Oregon. — Fine $io-$ioco, and in certain cases penitentiary not exceed, 
ing I year. 

Pennsylvania.— Fine not more than $300, or jail not more than i year 
or both. 



FORESTRY. lO'J' 

Rhode Island. — Imprisonment not exceeding 2 years. 

South Carolina, — Fine $5-$ioo, or jail not more than 30 days. 

South Dakota. — Fine not more than $200, or jail not more than i year, 
or both, 

Tennessee. — Forfeit $100 to prosecutor and fine $5-$5o (S. 2277, Code 
Sup. 1893). 

Texas. — Fine $50-300. 

Utah. — Misdemeanor. 

Vertnont.—Y'\x\Q. not more than $500, or penitentiary not more than c 
years. 

Virginia. — Fine $5-$ioo, and jail 1-6 months. 

West Virginia.— Fine Sio-$iooo, or jail not more than 12 months. 

IViscons in, —Fine not more than S500, or jail not more than i year. 

Wyoming. — Fine not more than S500, or jail 30 days to 6 months. 

w4rr'2<7«rt,— Misdemeanor. If on State or U. S. lands, fine not more than 
$1000, or jail not more than i year, or both. 

New Mexico. — Fine S6o-$5oo. 

Oklahoma.— Fine. $10-8500, or jail not more than i year, or both. 



108 AGRICULTURE. 



X. MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 

It is a matter of common experience among farmers that the 
soil is impoverished by continuous cropping, and the yields 
obtained therefore gradually decreased. The decrease in 
yields can only be prevented by applications of farmyard 
manure or commercial fertilizers; ploughing and thorough 
cultivation of the soil bring the land in a better mechanical 
condition and increase the amount of available plant food 
present in the soil, but these operations are not sufficient 
to maintain the fertility of the land so that it will yield 
equally well from year to year under otherwise favorable 
conditions. Every crop harvested contains certain quan- 
tities of fertilizing ingredients, and taking away these 
amounts in general leaves the soil in a poorer condition for 
the production of crops than it was before. 

The fertilizing ingredients of which the soil is thus liable 
to be robbed are potash, phosphoric acid, nitrogen, and 
sometimes lime. They are not present as such in the soil, 
or in the fertilizers applied to the soil, but in chemical com- 
binations with a large variety of compounds. The soil will 
contain nearly all the different elements which chemists 
have so far succeeded in isolating, but it is mainly the 
three elements, potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, 
which are apt to be decreased in the soil below the amounts 
required for the nutrition of crops, or at least of maxi- 
mum crops. In rational fertilization the effort therefore 
always is to return to the soil such quantities of fertilizing 
ingredients, in the shape of farmyard manure or com- 
mercial fertilizers, as will restore the loss sustained by the 
withdrawal of the crops harvested. Other mineral ingre- 
dients contained in the crops need not generally be re- 
turned to the soil, since they are nearly everywhere pres- 
ent in abundance. 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 109 

It is the grand work done for the farmer by agricultural 
chemistry during the past half century which has ex- 
plained the causes of the decreased fertility of land due 
to continuous cropping, and has given the remedies for 
maintaining the fertility. The latter are as follows: 

First, by selling only such products from the farm as will 
deprive the soil of the smallest quantities of fertilizing in- 
gredients, i.e., manufactured products, like milk, cream, 
butter, meat, eggs, rather than grain crops, hay, etc. The 
tables given on pp. iii-ii4show the amounts of fertilizing 
ingredients removed in farm products of various kinds and 
deserve a close study by all farmers. 

Secofidly, by carefully saving the manure produced by 
stock — both liquid and solid (the former by the use of ab- 
sorbents, peat, land plaster, kainit, superphosphate, shav- 
ings, etc., or by building special cisterns for storing it; the 
latter by placing it under shelter, guarding against leakage) 
— and returning it to the land ; as the products sold off the land 
also contain certain quantities of fertilizing constituents, 
the loss must be repaired by purchase of concentrated food 
stuffs, at least three fourths of whose valuable ash ingredi- 
ents will go into the manure and thus be saved for crops. 

Thirdly, by following a rational system of rotation of 
crops, and by frequent culture of leguminous crops, — 
clovers, peas, beans, etc., — since these are able to so fix 
the free nitrogen of the air as to render it of value to ani- 
mals and plants. 

VALUATION OF MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 

The valuation of fertilizing ingredients shown below (see 
p. 122) is the one agreed upon by a number of Eastern 
experiment and fertilizer control stations after a careful 
study of the retail prices of crude products of fertilizers 
during the six months prior to March i, 1896. It expresses 
the commercial value of the fertilizers, and not their agri- 
cultural value, which will vary according to the require- 
ments of the land and the character of the crops grown. 
Fertilizers are sold in States having fertilizer control, on 
the basis of a guarantee of a minimum content of potash, 



110 AGRICULTURE. 

phosphoric acid, and nitrogen, singly or combined, and it 
is the office of the fertilizer control stations to watch that 
goods offered for sale in their respective states are up to 
the guarantee. Farmers living in states where fertilizer 
laws are enacted (Alabama, Arkansas, Connecticut, Dela- 
ware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louis- 
iana, Maine, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Missis- 
sippi, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, North 
Carolina, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, South Caro- 
lina, Tennessee, Vermont, Virginia, West Virginia, Wis- 
consin) should not buy fertilizers except on guarantee, and 
should examine the fertilizer bulletins published by their 
respective stations to ascertain that the goods put on the 
market are not below the guarantee, and that the valuation 
price is not below the selling price of the article. Where 
a reasonable suspicion of fraud exists, apply to the direc- 
tor of the experiment station for information concerning 
the goods offered for sale or the firm placing them on the 
market. 



MAJEURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



Ill 



FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING 
STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS. 

(Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Material. 



Green Fodders, 

Pasture grass 

Green fodder corn 

Sorghum fodder 

Rye fodder. , 

Oat fodder 

Timothy grass 

Red clover 

White clover 

Alsike clover 

Scarlet clover 

Alfalfa (lucern) 

Cowpea 

Soja bean 

Prickly comfrey 

Corn silage 



Hay and Dry Coarse Fodders. 

Fodder corn (with ears) . . . . 

Corn stover (without ears) 

Hungarian grass 

Common millet 

Hay of mi.xed grasses 

Red- top • . , 

Timothy 

Red clover 

Mammoth red clover 

White clover 

Scarlet clover 

Alsike clover 

Alfalfa 

Barley straw , 

" chaff 

Wheat straw 

" chaff 

Rye straw 

Oat " 

Buckwheat hulls 



Roots, Bulbs, Tubers, etc. 

Potatoes 

Sweet potatoes 

Red beets 

Yellow fodder beets 

Sugar beets 

Mangel-wurzels 

Turnips 

Rutabagas 

Carrots 



per ct. 
63.1 
78.6 
82.2 
62.1 

83-4 
66.9 
80.0 
81.0 

8r.8 
82. 5 

7.=5-3 
78.8 

73-2 
84.4 
78.0 



7.85 
9.12 
7.69 

9-75 
11.99 



18.30 
9.94 

6.55 

11.44 

13.08 

12.56 

8.05 

7.61 

9.09 

11.90 



79.24 
71.26 
87-73 
90.60 
86.95 
87 29 
89.49 
89 13 
89.79 



per ct. 
3.27 
4.84 



I-3I 
2.15 



1.47 



2.25 
1.47 



2.45 



4.91 

3-74 
6.18 

6.34 
4-59 
4-93 
6-93 
8.72 



7.70 



7.07 
5-30 



3.81 
7.18 
325 
4.76 



.89 

1. 00 
1-13 

•95 
1.04 
1.22 

1. 01 
1.06 
1.22 



per ct. 

,91 
41 
23 
33 
49 
48 

53 
56 
44 
43 
72 

27 
29 
42 
28 



1.76 
1.04 
1.20 
1.28 
1. 41 

1-15 
1.26 
2.07 
2.23 

2.75 
2.05 

2-34 
2. 19 

1-31 
1. 01 

•59 
•79 
.46 
.62 

•49 



•32 
.24 
.24 
.19 
.22 
.19 
.18 
-19 
•15 



•^n-l" 
1< 



per ct. 
•23 
•15 

.09 

•15 
•13 
.26 

•13 
.20 
.11 
•13 

•13 
.10 

•15 



07 



.08 
.09 
.09 
. 10 
.09 



.09 



per ct. 
75 
33 
23 
73 
38 
76 
46 
24 
20 

49 
56 
31 
53 
75 
37 



.89 
1 .40 
1.30 
1.69 

1-55 
1 .02 
.90 
2.20 
1.22 
1. 81 

1-3' 

2.23 

1.68 

2.09 

•99 

-51 

.42 

•79 
1.24 

•52 



.46 
•37 
■44 
.46 
.48 
•38 
•39 
•49 
•51 



112 



AGRICULTURE. 



MANURIAL VALUE OF FEEDING STUFFS. 



Chart showing Pounds of Fertilizing Constituents of Feeding 

Stuffs in one Ton, and the Manurial Value of Feeding Stuff s^ 

according to the Valuation given. 



"Nitrogen ^Phosphoric Acid 



Potash 



Price per pound 12 cts. 4>^ cts. il^ cts. 

Black Bar represents Manurial Yalueper Ton, 

'20 '40 '60 '80 '100 '120 '140 '160 ' ISO '200 lb». 

OreencomfodclcJ^^,^ $1.42 



,1.10 



t^2^ 



_;;^ 



m 1 f>9 

Si .87 



,1.98 



Oat/odder 
Oreen clover 
Com silage 

Com stalks 

(^stover) 
Timothy hay 

Red clover hay 

"Wheat straw 

Potatoes 

Tumifis 
Indian corn 
^maize) 

fVheat 

Barley 

Oata 

Rye 

Biee 

Pea meal 

Buckwheat 

Com ^ cob meal ^^^^^^^^^ 

Com cob £3a_1.79 

Wheat bran ffffii^a^^^^. 

Wheat middlitigs\ 

Biee bran 



.4.02 
«4.31 



.7.29 



X 



,5.36 



.6.65 



•^""^ 



,4.77 



L 



:^^, 



.6.24 



,5.45 



l^M. 



2.83 



aja=«jji^'3 



».02 



t 



zr- 



,4.04 
_4.32 



,10.40 



^r^i. 



Linseed meal ,^ . , , , . 

O.P. ^u, 

JAnseeU meal ,r,^^ 

y.p. Wi^ 

Cotton seed meal 

Cotton seed hulls 
Gluten mcc.l ^^ 
Malt sprouts 
Brewers' grains 



2.18 



.15.78 




80 100 IgO 140 160 180 200 lb(. 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



113 



FERTILIZING CONSTITUENTS OF FEEDING 
STUFFS AND FARM PRODUCTS.— (G«//««^«'.) 



Materia], 



Grains and Other Seeds. 

Corn. 

Sorghum seed 

Barley. . 

Oats 

Wheat, spring 

" . winter 

Rye 

Millet, common 

Japanese millet 

Rice 

Buckwheat 

Soja beans 

Other Concentrated Feeds. 

Corn meal 

Corn and cob meal 

Ground oats 

" barley 

Wheat flour 

Pea meal 

Corn cobs 

Hominy feed 

Gluten meal 

Starch feed (glucose refuse) 

Malt sprouts. 

Brewers' grains, dry 

' " wet 

Rye bran 

" middlings 

Wheat bran 

" middlings 

Rice bran 

" polish 

Buckwheat middlings 

Cotton-seed meal 

hulls 

Linseed meal (old process). . 
" " (new process) . 

Apples, fruit 

Apple pomace.. 

Dairy Products^ etc. 

Whole milk 

Skim-milk 

Cream 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Butter 

Cheese. 

Live cattle 

Sheep 

Swine 



per ct. 
10.88 
14.00 
14.30 
18.17 
14-35 
14-75 
14.90 
12.68 
13-68 
12.60 
14.10 
18.33 



per ct. 
1-53 

2.48 
2.98 
1-57 



.82 
4.99 



12-95 


1. 41 


8.96 




11.17 


3-37 


13-43 


2.06 


9-83 


1 .22 


8.85 


2.68 


12.09 


.82 


8.93 


2.21 


8-59 


-73 


8.10 




18.38 


12.48 


9.14 


3-92 


75 01 




12.50 


4.60 


12.54 


3-52 


11.74 


6.25 


9.18 


2.30 


10.20 


12.94 


10.30 


9.00 


14.70 


1.40 


7.81 


6.95 


10.17 


2.40 


8.88 


6.08 


7-77 


5-.S7 


85.30 


•39 


80.50 


•27 


87.00 


-75 


90.25 


.80 


74-05 


•50 


90.50 


.70 


92.97 


.60 


79.10 


•15 


33 25 


2.10 


50 2 


4 40 


44.8 


2.90 


42 


1.80 



per ct. 

1.82 
1.48 
1. 51 
2.06 
2.36 
2.36 
1.76 
2.04 

1-73 
1.08 

1-44 
5-30 



1.58 
1. 41 
1.86 

1-55 
2.21 
3 -08 
-50 
1.63 

5-03 
2.62 

3-55 
3.62 

.89 
2.32 
1.84 
2.67 
2.63 

• 71 
1-97 
1.38 

6.79 
.69 

5-43 

5-78 

•13 
.23 



-53 
-56 
.40 



3-93 
2.48 

^■95 
1 .76 



■ '^ -a 

w O •— 
C J2 O 



per ct. 

,70 



•63 
-57 
•77 
.66 

-57 
.82 
.06 
.98 

-33 
.29 

1-43 
1.03 

-31 

2.28 
1.26 
2.89 

•95 

.29 
2.67 

.68 
2.88 

-25 
1.66 
1-83 



.19 
.20 
-15 
•17 
.14 
04 
.60 
.76 
■ ^3 
•73 



per ct. 
.40 
.42 
.48 
.62 

-39 
.61 

-54 
-36 
-38 
.09 
.21 
1. 99 



.40 
•47 
•59 
-34 
•54 
•99 
.60 

-49 
•05 
-15 
1.63 
.09 

•05 
1.40 

.81 
1. 61 

•63 
.24 

-71 

-34 

.87 

1.02 

1-37 

I '39 

.19 

•13 



•13 
.16 
.18 
.04 
. 12 
.16 
.14 



114 



AGKICULTURE. 



AMOUNT OF SOIL. INGREDIENTS WITHDRAWN 
BY VARIOUS CROPS, IN LBS. PER ACRE. 

(HiLGARD.) 



Crops. 



Grapes, i.ooo lbs 

Crop of 10,000 lbs 

Seeds, 646 lbs 

Flesh, 9,154 lbs 

Wood, 2,010 lbs 

Prunes, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 30,000 lbs 

Pits, 1,635 lbs 

Flesh, 28,365 lbs 

Apricots, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 30,000 lbs 

Pits, 1,740 lbs 

Flesh, 28,260 lbs 

Oranges, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 20,000 lbs 

Seeds, 240 lbs 

Flesh and rind, 10,760 lbs 

Roots, percentage.. 

Stems, " 

Leaves " 

Olives, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 2,200 lbs 

Pits, 429 lbs 

Flesh, 1,771 lbs 

Leaves, 4,400 lbs 

Wood, 11,000 lbs 

Wheat, 1,000 lbs. (whole plant)... 

Crop of 4.800 lbs. (hay) 

Grain, 20 bushels 

Straw, 3,600 lbs 

Alfalfa, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 12,000 lbs 

Sugar beets (fresh), 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 72,000 lbs 

Roots, 40,000 lbs 

Tops, 32,000 lbs 

Ramie, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 14.25 tons. 

Leaves, 4.25 tons 

Stalk (without bark), 7.25 tons. 

Bark (cuticle and fibre), 2.75 

tons 

Cotton, 1,000 lbs 

Crop of 3,200 lbs 

Leaves, 400 lbs 

Stems, 1,200 lbs 

Seeds, 800 lbs 

Burs, 400 lbs 

Lint, 400 lbs . ... 



53-42 

3-03 

1 20 . 90 

8.60 

112. 30 

5.16 

154.80 

12.25 

142.55 

4-32 

86.40 

6.90 

79 50 

100. 12 

100.00 

99.91 

94-63 

208.18 

193-25 

'4-56 

190.16 

123.18 

51.26 

246.04 

24.00 

222.04 

65.00 

780.00 

18.73 

1349-72 

287.00 

1062.72 

75-19 

2143-57 

1641.35 

410.48 

91.74 

54.26 
173.60 
48.69 
38.44 
29 -37 
52.01 
509 



5.00 

50.00 

1.48 

47-44 
15.69 

2.66 
79.70 

2.06 
77.64 

2.83 



19 



1 .36 
83.62 

2. II 
42.28 

2.74 
39-54 
15-43 
11.69 
16.51 

8.55 
18 81 

6.77 
12.04 
58.05 
24.46 

9-15 
43-92 

7-85 
36.07 

13-49 
161.88 
5-38 
387.44,224 
152.00 16. 
235.44 208. 
8.84I 23. 
251.98:657. 

68.13J566. 
155.99 71- 



[.00 
).oo 



:.6o 

-13 

\.gj 

•52 
1.40 
.18 

;-45 

-83 

.65 

.99 
72 
32 

40 

89 

13 

38 

32 



66 



22. 

274. 

3- 



27.86 
11.00 
35-26 

7-99 
9.17 
8.99 
7.42 
1.69 



19.14 

13 • 76 
44.04 

15-03 
10.58 

3-07 

14.16 

1.20 



Q.'(j 
o<! 



1.52 

15.20 
5-75 
8.93 
8.74 

•53 

15-95 

2.80 

13-15 
-71 

21.38 

5 36 
16.02 

-53 

10.60 

1.61 

8.99 
13-47 
17.09 

3-27 
1. 18 

2-59 
2 40 

-19 
20.08 
14.87 

4-13 
19.80 
11.90 

7.90 

6.43 
77.16 

1. 61 
16.16 
36.00 
80.16 

6.46 

155-70 

77-13 

67.71 

10.86 
7.03 

22.54 
4.22 



.61 
.01 
.22 
.02 
.20 
.02 

•94 
.19 

-75 
.04 
.80 
.04 
.76 
.7-z 
-15 
4-03 
•23 
-50 
.48 
.02 



1.65 

7.89 

.02 

7.87 

1-59 

19.08 

.86 

61.68 

12.00 

49 68 

I .12 

51-85 

41.56 

2.50 

7-79 
2.58 
8.27 
2.75 
2-54 

.48 
2. 14 

-36 



1.70 
17.00 



1.48 

44.40 
10.30 
34.10 

2.29 
68.70 
15.00 
53-70 

1.83 
36.60 



5. 85 

12.86 

9.67 

3-19 

69.90 

117.67 

8.75 

42.00 

24 00 

18.00 

12.96 

155-52 

!.38 

173-40 

60.40 

113.00 

12.97 

369.70 

206 . 10 

105.85 

57-75 



29.20 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



115 



Oh 
O 

O 

;^ 



55 -^ 



H 

O 
Q 







OPh 
PL, 



pL<Pu 



o c 
to a> 

Si: 
0.52; 






OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 



oooooooooooooooooooooooo 



OOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOOO 





. 05 (O 


"8 o 


0! 


oi o; 05 6 


05 


X)^ XI 


. 03 t/3 -^ i2 


: x> 


XJ j:;X3 . oj 


.JO 


^^ ^- ^— 


■ c c 




' " " to 


O) — 





• O 





O c . 


C 


coo 


■ Z. ^ O 


„ o 


■ o 


O O O tn 


• O 




• .n ^ 0, o. 




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• *J PI 


p) m « 


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coo 


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coo 

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M ro 


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Ht 



(T en c/) 

t^ Xi -^ Xl (/) 
^ c/3 c/3 ;/5 f^ 

o o o o o 
p< -*- Tj- m fo 

o o o o o 



In "3X1 

xi £ o 



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05 o; oi 

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o;j=j=^ 



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o o VO o 00 o 



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. S 05 03 

05 g 3 3 

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u-rt<u3rt^_0'--;--niC(i;u^0><3--00p;r 
< m CC CC U U U O O X S O O 0. eu P- P^ £d (/3 h H H h ^ 



116 AGRICULTURE. 

31INIMUM AMOUNT OF FARMYARD MANURE 

required to replace the Ingredients abstracted from 
the Soil by an Acre of Different Crops. (McConnell.) 



Wheat 5 tons. 

Barley 5 

Oats 5 

Meadow hay 8 

Red clover I2 

Beans lo 



Turnips 15 tons. 

Swedes 10 

Mangolds 20 

Potatoes 10 

Cabbage 25 

Carrots 10 



A3IOUNT AND QUALITY OF MANURE PRODUCED 

BY STOCK. 

The various classes of farm animals will produce about 
the following quantities of solid and liquid manure during 
a year, viz.: 

Solid Manure. Liquid Manure. 

Horse 12,000 lbs. 3,000 lbs. 

Cow 20,000 " 8,000 " 

Sheep 760 " 380 " 

Pig 1,800 " 1,200 •' 

Since a considerable portion of the manure is lost while 
the animal is working or is out-doors, the quantities secured 
in the manure-pile will not come up to these figures. 

The quantities of urine voided by farm animals during 
twenty-four hours are on the average as follows, accord- 
ing to Wilckens : cows, 15-20 lbs.; horses, 20-27 lbs.; 
sheep, 2 lbs.; swine, 7-9 lbs. The capacity for liquid 
manure-tanks or cisterns intended to hold the fluid excre- 
ments of a herd of a certain size may readily be calculated 
on a basis of these figures (see tables on p. 137). 6000 lbs. 
(about 720 gallons) of urine per 1000 lbs. live weight of 
cattle, is a liberal estimate. 

The quality of the manure produced will depend on the 
character of the feeding and the kind of stock kept. Rich 
feeding produces a rich manure, since, as shown in the 
table given below, only a relatively small portion of the 
valuable fertilizing ingredients of the food is retained in 



MANURES AN^D FERTILIZERS. 



117 



the bodies of the animals, or is taken away in the products 
sold. Rich feeding, therefore, has a beneficial influence in 
two directions, larger yields of products being obtained, 
and a better quality of manure being produced. 



COMPOSITION, AMOUNT, AND VALUE OF MANURE 

Produced by Different Kinds of Farm Animals. 

(Results of experiments conducted at Cornell University Experiment 

Station.) 



m 


Analysis and Value per Ton of 
Manure. 


Amount and Value per 

1000 lbs. Live Weight 

per Day. 






A • { 


1 . 


J3 


(U * 


1 f> 

\ "a 


* 


4J *. 




4J 




Per ct. 


0! 

(1, 

Per ct. 


Valu 

per 

Ton. 


^Q 


Valu 

per 

Day. 


Valu 

per 

Year 




Per ct. 


Per ct. 






Cents. 




Sheep. .. 


59-52 


-77 


9^39 


-59 . 


$3.30 


34-1 


7.2 


$26 09 


Calves.. 


77-73 


•50 


•17 


•53 


2.18 


67.8 


6.7 


24^45 


Pigs.... 


74-13 


.84 


■39 


•32 


329 


83 6 


16.7 


60.88 


Cows ... 


75-25 


•43 


.29 


•44 


2.02 


74. T 


8.0 


29.27 


Horses . 


48.69 


•49 


.26 


.48 


2.21 


48.8 


7.6 


27.74 



QUANTITIES OF NITROGEN AND ASH CONSTITU- 

ents Voided by Animals or Obtained in Animal 
Products. (Lawes and Gilbert.) 





Percentage of Nitrogen. 


Percentage of Ash 
Constituents. 




Obtain- 
ed as 

Animal 
Prod- 
uct. 


Voided 
as Solid 
Excre- 
ment. 


Voided 

as 
Liquid 
Excre- 
ment. 


In Total 
Excre- 
ment. 


Obtained 
as Live 
Weight 
or Milk. 


Voided 
as Excre- 
ment or 
Perspira- 
tion. 


Horse at rest . . . 
Horse at work... 
Fattening oxen . 
Fattening siieep. 
Fattening pigs. 
Milking cows 


None. 

None. 

3-9 

4-3 

14.7 

24-5 


43-0 
29.4 
22.6 
16.7 
22 .0 
iS.i 


57-0 
70.6 

73-5 
79.0 

63 -3 
57-4 


100. 
100. 
96.1 
95-7 
85-3 
75-5 


None. 
None. 

2-3 

3-8 

4.0 

10.3 


100. 
100.9 

97-7 
96.2 
96.0 
89.7 



* Valuing nitrogen at 15 cents, pnospnoric acid at 6 cents, and potash 
at 4i cents per pound. 



118 



•AGRICULTURE. 



PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF COMMERCIAL 
FERTILIZING MATERIALS. (Real.) 



Name. 



Algae {Lyfigbia tnajuscula) . 

Ammonite 

Apatite 

Ashes, anthracite coal 

" bituminous *' 

" lime-kiln , ... 

" wood, leached 

" " unleached 

Bat guano .... 

Bone-ash 

Bone-black 

" " dissolved 

Bone meal , . 

" " dissolved 

" " free from fat . . . . 

'* " from glue factory 

Carnallite. 

Caribbean guano 

Castor pomace 

Cotton-hur ashes 

Cotton-seed meal, decort . . 
" " " undecort.. 

Cuba guano 

Dried blood 

Dried fish. 

Eel -grass (2d>.y^^r<» marina).. 

Gas lime 

Horn and hoof waste 

Kainit 

Kelp {laminaria) 

Kieserite 

Krugite 

Lobster shells 

Marls, Kentucky 

" Maryland and Virginia 
" New Jersey green sand 

" North Carolina 

Meat scrap . 

Mona Island guano 

Muck. . 

Mud, salt 

Muriate of potash. 

Navassa phosphate 

Nitrate of soda 

Oleomargarine refuse 



16.26 
5-88 



15-45 
30.22 
12.50 
40.09 
7.00 
4.60 



7-50 



4-25 
11-33 



8.20 



4-05 

2.60 
6.20 
1.70 



7-31 
9-50 
7.80 

7-75 



24.27 
12.50 

12.75 
81.19 
22.28 
10. 17 
3.20 

87-75 
22.70 



5-50 

6.79 
4-30 
1.67 
10.52 
7-25 
•35 



13-25 



4.82 

7.27 

1.50 

1.50 

1.50 

1.50 

12.09 

13-32 

50.00 

60.00 

2.00 

7.60 

1 .40 

8 54 



4.50 



10.44 
.76 

T.IO 

.40 



15 70 
12.12 



-79 



13.60 



1. 10 

22.75 
1.77 
1-50 



•32 



13-54 
.24 



8.42 



•1-3 

•2-5 

3-5-7 

2-1.5 



-15 

•35 

51.48 



Phosphoric Acid. 



2-37 



15.40 
.40 



X 



1.24 



1.30 
7.60 



1353 



1-25 



•55 



6.50 



2.60 



7-55 



17.60 
20. 10 
29.90 



26.77 

1-75 
8.85 
2. 
3- 
13-35 
1. 91 
8.25 
.07 



i^83 



.06 



3-52 

.2 

.0-2 

.1-4 

0-.4 

2.07 

21.88 

. 10 



34-27 



.06 



48.50 
28.08 
34.00 

44.89 



39-95 
9.60 



-51 
43.66 

I-I5 

.40 

2.82 

12.4s 
22.24 

3-34 
0-40 
1-9 
5-45 

37-49 
.90 

37-45 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



119 



PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF C03IMEKCIAL 
FERTILIZING MATEniAlAS— Con tmued. 



Name. 



Oyster-shell lime*. 

Peat 

Peruvian guano 

Phosphates, Florida 

Plaster, puret 

Seaweed 

" ashes 

" mixed 

Sewage sludge, precipitated 
Soot, 



S. Carolina rock, dissolved., 

" " " ground 

Spent tan-bark ashes. .. ... 

Sumac waste 

Sulfate of ammonia 

Sulfate of potash and mag- 



Sulfate of potash, high grade 

Sylvanite 

Tankage 

Thomas slag , 

Tobacco stalks 

" stems 

Wool washings 

Wool waste 



Coviposition of Farm 
Manures. 

Barnyard manure, average.. 
Cattle excrement, sol id, fresh 

Cattle urine, fresh 

Hen manure, fresh 

Horse excrement, solid 

Horse urine, fresh. 

Human excrement, solid 

Human urine 

Pigeon manure, dry 

Poudrette, night soil 

Sheep excrement, solid, fresh 

Sheep urine, fresh 

Stable manure, mixed 

Swine excrement, solid, fresh 
Swine urine, fresh 



15.00 
61 , 50 
14.81 

2.2Z, 



01.90 

1-47 

81.50 
88.49 

5-54 



1.50 

3.61 

63.06 

1 .00 

4-75 

2-54 

7-25 

10.00 

1.45 
6.18 



15-S 



68.87 



60.00 



77.20 
95-90 
10.00 
50.00 



73-27 



.85 
7-35 



.29 



•73 
-05 



1. 19 
20.50 



6.70 



3-71 
2.35 



6.50 



.49 
.29 
•58 

1 . 10 
.44 

1-55 

1 .00 
.60 

3.20 
.80 
•55 

1-95 
•50 
.60 

■43 



•05 



2.65 



.40 
.92 

1.50 

•05 
1.83 



2.04 
3-25 



25-50 
33-40 
16.65 



5.02 
8.20 
392 

tl.20 



•43 
.10 

•49 

•56 

•35 

1.50 

•25 
.20 

1 .00 
•30 
•15 

2.26 
.60 
•13 



Phosphoric Acid. 



3.20 



Oi 



4.10 



•30 

.CO 



5- 
3.06 



.08 
15-30 
24 50 



15.20 

28.03 

1. 61 



11.80 

23-49 

.65 

•70 



•35 



55- 00 



28.50 
20.93 



6.06 

•23 

1-58 



41.87 

33-46 

1.14 



2.57 



48.66 
2.22 
4.20 



.11 



80 



* 18.5 per cent carbonate. 

+ Nova Scotia plaster contains 94 per cent pure gypsum and 4 per cent 
carbonate of lime; Onondae^a and Cayuga, 65-75 per cent gypsum and 
18-28 per cent carbonate of lime. 

% Sometimes as high as 5 per cent. 



120 ' AGRICULTURE. 

EXHAUSTION OF FERTILIZERS. (Scotch Authority.) 
ON CULTIVATED CLAY LOAM. 



Kind of Fertilizer. 



Lime 

Bone meal 

Phosphatic guanos 

Dissolved bones and plain superphos- 
phates 

High-grade ammoniated fertilizers, 
guano, etc 

Cotton-seed meal 

Stable manure 






■a a 



Per Cent remaining in the 

Soil Unexhausted at 

End of Each of First 

Six Years. 



2 


3 


4 

45 


5 


65 


55 


35 


30 


20 


10 




30 


20 


10 




10 


5 


•■ 


•• 


20 








30 


20 


10 


.. 


30 


20 


10 


•• 



25 



ON CULTIVATED LIGHT OR MEDIUM SOILS. 



Lime 

Bone meal 

Phosphatic guanos . . 

Dissolved bones and plain superphos- 
phate 

High-grade ammoniates, guanos 

Cotton-seed meal 

Stable manure . . 






75 


60 


40 


30 


20 


15 


4 


60 


30 


10 






.. 


4 


50 


20 


10 








3 


20 


10 


5 








3 


30 


20 










4 


40 


30 


20 


10 






4 


60 


30 


10 






.. 



ON CULTIVATED PASTURE LAND. 



Lime. ... 

Bone meal 

Phosphatic guanos 

Dissolved bone, etc 

High-grade ammoniated guanos 

Cotton-seed meal 

Stable manure 



15 


80 


70 


60 


50 


45 


7 


bo 


50 


40 


30 


20 


6 


50 


40 


30 


20 


10 


4 


30 


20 


10 






4 


30 


20 


10 






5 


40 


30 


20 


10 




7 


60 


50 


40 


30 


20 



40 



Sulfate of ammonia, nitrate of soda, sulfate, nitrate, 
and muriate of potash are generally held to be entirely 
exhausted by the crops grown the season of their applica- 
tion. 



MANURES AND FERTILIZERS. 



121 



EQUIVAIiENT QUANTITIES OF FERTIIjIZING 
MATEKIAIjS. (Wheeler and Hartwell.) 



For 



loo lbs. nitrate of 
soda 

loo lbs. sulfate 
of ammonia 

loo lbs. dried 
blood 

loo lbs. cotton- 
seed meal 

loolbs. diss, phos- 
phate rock 

loo lbs. diss, bone 
black 

loo lbs. double 
superphosphate 

r 

I 

ICO lbs. tank- ■ 



age 



loo lbs. dry 
ground fish 



May be Substituted any One of these Materials. 



loo lbs. fine- J 
ground bone ) 



76 lbs. sulfate of 141 lbs. dried 235 lbs. cotton- 
ammonia blood seed meal. 

132 lbs. nitrate of 186 lbs. dried 311 lbs. cotton- 
soda blood seed meal 

71 lbs. nitrate of 54 lbs. sulfate of 167 lbs. cotton- 
soda ammonia seed meal 

43 lbs. nitrate of 32 lbs. sulfate of 60 lbs. dried 
soda ammonia blood 

76 lbs. diss, bone 33 lbs. double su- 
black perphosphate 

131 lbs. diss, phos- 43 lbs. double su- 
phate rock perphosphate 

308 lbs diss, phos- 235 li)s. double 
phate rock superphosphate 

39 lbs. nitrate of soda and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 

29 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 38 lbs. phosphate 
lock. 

55 lbs. dried blood and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 
91 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 38 lbs. phosphate rock. 
80 lbs. dry ground fish and 14 lbs. phosphate rock. 
33 lbs. nitrate of soda and 4.5 lbs. fine-ground bone. 
48 lbs. nitrate of soda and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 
37 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate 

rock. 
68 lbs. dried blood and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 
113 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 31 lbs. diss, phosphate 

rock. 
80 lbs. tankage and 17 lbs. nitrate of soda. 
36 lbs. fine ground bone and 44 lbs. nitrate of soda. 
13 lbs. nitrate of soda and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 
10 lbs. sulfate of ammonia and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate 

rock. 
18 lbs. dried blood and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 

30 lbs. cotton-seed meal and 85 lbs. diss, phosphate 
rock. 

33 lbs. tankage and 72 lbs. diss, phosphate rock. 

27 lbs, dry ground fish and 76 lbs. diss, phosphate rock 



122 AGRICULTURE. 

TRADE VALUES OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS 
IN RAW MATERIALS AND CHEMICALS, 1896. 

Cents 
per lb. 

Nitrogen — 

in ammonia salts i5 

in nitrates I3i 

Organic nitrogen — 

in dry and fine-ground fish, meat, blood, and in high- 
grade mixed fertilizers 14 

in cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, and castor pomace 12 

in fine-ground bone and tankage I3i 

in fine-ground medium bone and tankage 12 

in medium bone and tankage 9 

in coarse bone and tankage 3 

in hair, horn-shavings, and coarse fish scraps 3 

Phosphoric acid — 

soluble in water 5i 

soluble in ammonium citrate 5 

in dry fine-ground fish and in fine bone and tankage. 5 

in fine medium bone and tankage 4 

in medium bone and tankage 2$ 

in coarse bone and tankage 2 

in fine-ground fish, cotton-seed meal, linseed meal, 

castor pomace, and wood ashes 4^ 

insoluble (in ammonium citrate solution), in mixed 

fertilizers • 2 

Potash as high-grade sulfate, and in mixtures free 

from muriate 5 

as muriate 4i 

The manurial constituents contained in feeding stuffs are 
valued as follows : 

Organic nitrogen I2 

Phosphoric acid 4^ 

Potash 4i 



MANUEES AND FERTILIZERS. 



123 



CONVERSION TABLE FOR CALCULATING FER- 
TILIZING INGREDIENTS. 



Amount of 



Nitrogen 

Ammonia 

<i 
i( 
tt 

Nitrate of soda 

Sulfate of ammonia ... 

Potash (anhydrous) 

Sulfate of potash 

Muriate of potash 

Phosphoric acid (anhydrous) 

II. i( 

Mono-calcium phosphate . . , 

Di-calcium phosphate , 

Tri-calcium phosphate 

Lime (calcium oxid) 

Chlorin 



Multiplied 
by 


Gives Corresponding Amount 
of 


I.2T4 
6.07 


Ammonia. 
Nitrate of soda. 


.824 
3.882 

3-147 
3.706 
5-0 


Nitrogen. 

Sulfate of ammonia. 
Cblorid of ammonia. 
Nitric acid. 
Nitrate of soda. 


.165 
.2 

.212 
.258 


Nitrogen. 
Ammonia. 
Nitrogen. 
Ammonia. 


1.85 
1.585 
•54 
.632 


Sulfate of potash. 
Muriate of potash. 
Potash. 


2.183 

1-915 
1.648 


Tri-calcium phosphate. 
Di-calcium phosphate. 
Mono-calcium phosphate. 


^-325 

1-565 

.459 


Tri-calcium phosphate. 
Phosphoric acid. 


1-845 
1.786 
1.648 


Tri-calcium phosphate. 
Carbonate of lime. 
Sodium chlorid. 



124 AGRICULTURE. 



XL AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 

REASONS FOK TILE-DRAINING liAND. 

(Chamberlain.*) 

Land should be drained, because: 

1. Tile drainag-? makes all tillage and harvesting operations 
easier and more rapid, physically and mechanically. 

2. Drainage removes both the excess surface-water, and the 
surplus water in the soil and the subsoil. 

3. Drainage prevents loss of fertility by surface wash. 

4. Drainage will add fertility to the soil with each rainfall, 

5. Drainage helps to warm the soil as well as to dry it, giv- 
ing best conditions for plant growth. 

6. Drainage lengthens the season of tillage, crop, growth, 
and harvest. 

7. Drainage increases the extent of root pasturage. 

8. Drainage helps to disintegrate the soil and make pulveri- 
zation possible. 

9. Drainage greatly diminishes the effect of frost in heaving 
out wheat, clover, etc., in winter and spring, 

10. Drainage on clayey soils helps the crops to resist drought 
better. 

11. Drainage often, though not always, diminishes the sud- 
denness and violence of floods. 

12. Drainage, both open and with tiles, improves the health 
of a region. 

•Tile Drainage, by W. I. Chamberlain, Medina, Ohio, 1891, 35 cents. 



AGRICULTURAL EI^GINEERING. 



125 



NUMBER OP RODS AND OF TILES PER ACRE, 

WITH DRAINS AT VARIOUS DISTANCES 

APART. (Scott.) 



Distance 

between 

the Drains. 


Rods 
(514 Yards) 
per Acre. 


12-inch 
Tile. 


13-inch 
Tile. 


14-inch 
Tile. 


15-inch 
Tile. 


Feet. 












15 


176 


2904 


2680 


2489 


2323 


18 


146 


2420 


2234 


2074 


1936 


21 


125 


2074 


1915 


1778 


1659 


24 


no 


1815 


1676 


1555 


1452 


27 


97 


1613 


1480 


1383 


1290 


30 _ 


88 


1452 


1340 


1244 


1161 


33 


80 


1320 


1219 


1131 


1056 


36 


72 


1210 


1117 


1037 


968 


39 


67 


1117 


1031 


957 


893 


42 


62 


1037 


958 


888 


829 



SIZE OF TILE PIPES 

Required for Draining under Average Conditions. 

(Waring.) 

The drains being laid four feet, or more, deep, and laid on 
a well-regulated fall of three inches in a hundred feet : 

For 2 acres, ij-inch pipes 

" 8 *' 2i 

" 20 *' 3i 

" 40 '* two 3J 

♦* 50 " 6 

" 100 " 8 

These drains will remove the water fast enough for all prac- 
tical purposes, even after heavy storms; if the pipes are securely- 
laid, the drains will only be benefited by the occasional cleaning 
they will receive when running "more than full." 



126 



AGRICULTURE. 



Table of Size of Tile Pipe of Main Drain. 

(MCCONNELL.) 



Fall. 


Acres Drained. 


3-inch 
Tile. 


4-inch 
Tile. 


6-inch 
Tile. 


8-inch 
Tile. 


10-inch 
Tile. 


12-inch 
Tile. 


T foot in 20 


18.6 

12.9 
II. 9 
10.9 

lO.O 

9-3 
8.1 

7-3 
6.7 

5-7 
5-1 
4.6 
4.1 
3-7 
3-3 
2.9 
2.6 
2.1 
1.9 


26.8 
21.8 
18.6 
17.0 
15-6 
14-5 
13-4 
12.6 
II. 9 

9-5 
8.2 

7-5 
6.9 
5-9 

5-2 

4-7 
4.1 

3-7 
30 
2.8 


74-4 
60.4 

51.6 
47-7 
43-4 
39-9 
37-2 
35-0 
33-1 
26.6 
22.8 
20.4 
18.4 
16.5 
14.8 

13-3 

11.4 

10.2 

8.5 

7-4 


150.0 
128.0 
108.8 
98.0 
90.0 
83.0 
77,0 

72.5 
69.2 
56.0 
48.0 
42.4 
38.2 
32.6 
30.1 
28.0 
24.0 
21.2 
i6.8 
150 


270.0 

220.8 

189.6 

170.4 

156.0 

144 4 

1350 

127.0 

120.6 

97-3 

83.9 

74-4 

65-5 

60.3 

54 -c 

48.6 

41.9 

37-2 

30.8 

25.0 


426.0 
346.0 
298.4 
269.0 
246.0 
228.1 


I '« " ^0 




I " " so 

1 " " 60 




I " " 8o.::::::::' 

I " " 90 

I " " 100 


213.0 
200.5 
190.5 
154-4 
132-5 
117. 
107.0 
90.7 
81 6 


I " " ICO 


I " " 200. 


I " " 2';o 


1 " " 300 

I " " 400 


I " " 600 


74.0 
65.0 
56.0 
47.0 
40.8 


I •' " 800 




I " " 1500 

I " " 2000 



Rule for Obtaining- Size of Main Pipes. — Multiply the 
square root of the number of small drains (of fair average 
length) by the diameter of small pipes; the quotient gives the 
diameter of main. 

If the distance apart of drains in feet be denoted by F, that 
in links by Z, and the length of drains in chains per acre by C, 
then 

^ 660 1000 



Number of 12-inch Pipes Required per Acre at 
Different Distances between the Drains: 



Distance. 
Feet. 


Number 


12 


3630 


15 


2904 


18 


2420 


21 


2073 


27 


1613 



Distance. 
Feet. 

33 

40 

50 

60 



Number. 

1320 

1089 

871 

726 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



127 



RISE OF THE SL-OPE FOR 100 FEET. (Waring.) 

Table I. gives the rise of the slope for loo feet of the horizontal 
measurement. 
Table II., the rise of the slope for loo feet of its own length. 



Table No. I. 



Deg. 


Feet. 


Deg. 


S 


8.749 


50 


lO 


17 


633 


55 


15 


26 


795 


60 


20 


^6 


397 


: 65 


25 


46 


631 


70 


3" 


57 


735 


75 


35 


70 


021 


80 


40 


«3 


910 


85 


45 


100 







Feet. 



119-175 
142.815 
173-205 
214.451 
274.748 
373-205 
567. 128 
1143.010 



Deg. 



15 
20 

25 
30 
35 
40 

45 



Table No. II. 



Feet. 

8.716 

17-365 

25.882 

34.202 

42.262 

50 

57 358 

64.279 

70 711 



Deg 


Feet. 


50 


76.604 


55 


81.915 


60 


86.602 


65 


90.631 


70 


93.969 


75 


96-593 


80 


98.481 


B5 


99.619 



Example. — If the horizontal measurement is 100 feet, and the slope is at 
an angle of 10°, the rise will be 17.633 feet. 
If the sloping line (at an angle of 15°) is 100 feet, it rises 25.882 feet. 



QUANTITY OF EARTH REMOVED PER ROD OP 
DRAINS OF VARIOUS DIMENSIONS. (Scott.) 



c' 


Mean Width of Drains. 


'c5 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


In. 


1) 
C-tlH 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


18 


















0. 








Cubic Yards. 









2^ 

3 

3^ 
4 
5 



0.89 


1.02 


I. 14 


1.27 


1.40 


1-53 


1.65 


1.78 


1. 91 


2.04 


2.16 


1.07 


1.22 


1-37 


1-53 


1.(38 


1.83 


1.98 


2.14 


2.29 


2.24 


2.60 


I. 25 


1.42 


1.60 


1.78 


1.96 


2.14 


2.32 


2-49 


2.67 


2.85 


3-03 


1.42 


1.63 


1.83 


2.04 


2.24 


2-44 


2.65 


2-85 


3-os 


3.26 


3-46 


1.78 


2.03 


2.29 


2-54 


2.80 


3-05 


3-31 


3.5b 


3-«2 


4.07 


4-33 



2.29 

2-75 
3.21 
3.66 
4.58 



" If a 4-ft. drain be cut 14 in. wide at top and 4 in. at bot- 
tom, the mean width will be 9 in., and the quantity of earth 
excavated in cutting each rod wnll be 1.83 cubic yards ; if 



128 



AGRICULTURE. 



the same drain be cut i8 in. at top and 8 in. at bottom, the 
mean width will be 13 in., and 2.65 cubic yards of earth 
will have to be removed in cutting each rod : so that if the 
digging of the drain costs 6 cents per cubic yard of earth 
moved the narrow drain will cost 11 cents per rod, and the 
other nearly 16 cents per rod, showing the cost to be one 
half larger, quite unnecessarily. 

" The same table will be found useful in helping to fix the 
relative prices of deep and shallow drains ; but it must be 
recollected that the deeper drains will be increased in cost 
not only by reason of the greater quantity of earth which 
has to be moved, but also because of the increased labor of 
lifting the earth to the surface from a greater depth." 



RAINFALIi. (McCoNNELL.) 



Inches 


Cubic Feet 


Gallons 


Tons 


of Depth. 


per Acre. 


per Acre. 


per Acre. 


I 


3.630 


22,635 


lOI.I 


2 


7.260 


45,270 


202.2 


3 


10,890 


67,905 


303.3 


4; 


14,520 


90,539 


404.4 


5 


18,150 


113,174 


505.5 


6 


21,780 


135,809 


606.6 


7 


25,410 


158,444 


707.7 


8 


29,040 


181,072 


808.8 


9 


32,670 


203,714 


909.9 


10 


36,300 


226,349 


lOII.O 


II 


39.930 


248,984 


III2.I 


12 


43,560 


271,619 


I213.2 



AGRICULTUKAL ENGINEERING. 



129 



TABLE SHOWING THE FORCE AND VELOCITY 
OP WIND. (Waring.) 



Miles 
per Hour. 


Feet 
per Minute. 


Lbs. Press- 
ure on 
I sq. ft. 


Description. 


I 

2 

3 
4 
5 
6 
8 

lO 

15 

20 

25 

30 

35 
40 

45 
50 
60 
80 

100 


88 
176 
264 

352 

440 

528 

704 

880 

1320 

1760 

2200 

2640 

3080 

3520 

3960 

4400 

5280 

7040 

8800 


.005 
.020} 

.045 J 

.080 

•125) 

.180 [• 

.320) 

.500* 

1.125 s 

2.000 l_ 

3-125 (■ 
4.500 J 

6.125 J 

8.000) 
10.125 i 
12.500 
18.000 
32.000 

50.000 < 


Barely observable. 

Just perceptible. 

Light breeze. 

Gentle, pleasant wind 

Brisk blow. 
Very brisk. 
High wind. 

Very high. 

Storm. 

Great storm. 

Hurricane. 

Tornado, uprooting trees, sweeping 

off buildings, etc. 



NUMBER OF SQUARE FEET AND ACRES THAT A 

First-class Windmill can Irrigate One Inch in 8 
Hours, Raising the Water 10, 15 or 25 Feet. 

(A. R. Wolff.) 







10 Feet. 


15 Feet. 


25 Feet. 


s 


ize of Windmill. 








Sq. Ft. 


Acres 


Sq. Ft. 


Acres 


Sq. Ft. 


Acres 


Si ft. diam. of wheel.. 


11,736.34 


.269 


7,824.74 


.180 


4,744-74 


.109 


10 




37,161.74 


•853 


24.774-75 


•569 


14,767-83 


•339 


12 




66,765.16 


1-533 


44,509.85 


1.022 


26,134.57 


.600 


14 




85,982.05 


1.974 


57,321.11 


1.316 


34,757-03 


.798 


lb 




120,106.14 


2.757 


80,070.76 


1-838 


49,742.00 


1.142 


18 




192,446.10 


4.418 


123,164.58 


2.827 


75,215-14 


1.727 


20 




238,395-08 


5-473 


158,930-31 


3-649 


96,211.50 


2 .209 


25 


" " " . . 


410,038.09 


9-413 


273,359.24 


6.275 


163,533-37 


3-75 


30 




831,686.24 


19.093 


561,197.56 


12.883 


331,752.96 


7.616 



130 



AGRICULTURE. 



« W y I' lU •'- C 



oococooooooooooo 







ivalent 
al Use- 
Horse- 
ower 
eloped. 








^NwOOllMOO-* 






O ►• N M ■*VO t~ to 






3 3 a> 








^|1 Q 




m 
















M 






■ 






00 m 1- 00 w 








<ti 






On t~» HI m ■>!■ 


>i^ 




e 
rt 
O 


O 

o 






JN c* o- t^ 










■^00 « mvo 

M W S 












z 




u 


- 




• t^ >- m -^ o 










• 00 t>«00 00 ■* 




3 

c 




^00 r^ --i- ti CO 


ii 


• «o t^ o t^ c> t^ 


^ 




u 

•a c 


M 




M M r* 


^ 


Vt-1 
O 

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HI \o " 00 in 
ui in Ti- m ts Tt PI 









t^CO W >- T)- P) t-. 


-.J- M M vo ■* " On 


>^ 




4) O 

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PS > 


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ro in ■* M o 





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M HI h- CO •» t^ 




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<- 




vo roN Cj'-^ino "«- 


PJ 






►- >0 w-.-O tn^ invo 




v,-i 




O lO Cn m^ " t^ a> 


Q 




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Vh 




< 







CO C^ t-~ M >- N mvD 




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^ « ro mvo 









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HI ov HI NO VO Ov rO 


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O ro in ^ f- ■^^ N 








w ro -q-^ O^ fi M 









►H « 


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QC 




1 . 

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mioo "10 »oo in 






r^>o vo U-) lo -I- ■«■ ,-o 


r^ 




O CtM V 


O- ----- - 


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?:.2 o-« 


.._,------- 


M 




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t^vo lo m •<*■■* m en 


























^O^OvO^O^O^O^O^ 












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M « M « M N N 



»-H^^H-H>>^;-"ri^ 



AGRICULTURAL ENGIXEERIKG. 



131 



Q 
55 









O 
Q 

;?: 

M 


ri 



Expense 

per 
Horse- 
power, in 
cents 
per 
hour. 


CO O>00 OVO in N 


•a 
u 
a 
^ 

> 
u 

Q 

u 

V 

H 

V a. 

2i 

< 

o 

u 
in 

c 

V 

a 

X 


5 
o 


N f^ r<l <^"0 VO 
M N cs ro ■* 


^6 


ooqoqoMM 


For 

Attend- 
ance. 


oooqqqoq 


For Repairs 
and Depre- 
ciation (5^ of 
first cost 

per 
annum). 


loovo m XT) \n >o 

l-( IH M N 


For Interest on 
First Cost (first 
cost including 
cost of wind- 
mill, pump, and 
tower) at 5^ per 
annum. 


ioo>o >nio«no <o 

W M H N 


Average 

Number of 

Hours 

per 

Day 

During 

which this 

Quantity 

will be 

Raised. 


0000000000000000 


Equiva- 
lent 
Actual'Use- 
ful 
Horse- 
power 
Developed. 


Tj-(M MOO M MO-* 

" M -s ■^vo t^ ro 


Gallons 

of 

Water 

Raised 

25 Feet per 

Hour. 


MVOCO^O w C~.M 

t^ >r> ro t^vo 0> ■* 

ro iH t~oo 00 •* t~ 

M^ c^ cT m in tC pT 

H 


Designation 

of 

Mill. 


00 N -*-^ 00 vn 

►- ►- M M !-• CI CI 






-!=3H^>>^g 



132 



AGRICULTURE. 



NOMINAL HORSE-POWER REQUIRED FOR THE 
DISCHARGE OF GIVEN QUANTITIES OF WATER 
WITH LIFTS OF 10 AND 20 FEET. (Scott.) 



Diameter of Pipe, 
Inches. 


Gallons 

Discharged per 

Minute. 


Nominal H.P. 

required for a 

lo-foot Lift. 


Nominal H.P. 

required for a 

20-foot Lift. 


3 


lOO 


I 


2 


4 


200 


1V2 


3 


1 


350 
500 


2 
2^ 


4 
5 


7 
8 


759 
1000 


3 

4 


6 
8 


ID 


1500 


6 


10 


12 
14 


2300 
2S00 


8 

10 


14 
16 


15 
i8 


3300 
6000 


12 
20 


20 

35 



IRRIGATION. (Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



A wafer right is the right or privilege of using water lor 
irrigating purposes, either in a definite quantity or upon a 
prescribed area of land, such right or privilege being cus- 
tomarily acquired either by priority of use or by purchase. 
In many parts of the arid region a water right is an exceed- 
ingly valuable property. The average value of the water 
rights of the entire arid region, as determined by the cen- 
sus of 1890, was $26 per acre, and there are fruit-growing 
districts in California where water rights have been sold at 
as high as $1500 per miner's inch, or from $100 to 
$500 per acre, according to the amount used on any given 
area of land. 

The duty of water is the extent of the service it will per- 
form when used for irrigating purposes, that is, the num- 
ber of acres a given quantity of water will adequately irri- 
gate under ordinary circumstances. This is usually from 
100 to 200 acres for each second-foot. Where water is 
abundant the duty has been known to be as low as 50 
acres, and where very scarce as high as 500 acres, to the 
second-foot. 



AGRICULTURAL EKGIKBERING. 133 

A mhier's inch is theoretically such a quantity of water as 
will flow through an aperture i inch square in a board 2 
inches thick under a head of water of 6 inches in one sec- 
ond of time, and it is equal to 0.194 gallon, or 0.0259337 
cubic foot, per second, or to 11.64 gal., or i.556o24cubic ft., 
per minute. The amount of water flowing through a given 
aperture in a given time varies, however, with the head of 
water over the opening, and also with the form of the 
opening. In Colorado the miner's inch legalized by statute 
equals 11. 7 gal. per min. The California miner's inch, how- 
ever, equals only 9 gal. per min., 100 Colorado inches being, 
accordingly, equal to 130 California inches. One hundred 
Colorado inches will cover an acre to a depth of 5.2 ft. in 
24 hours ; 100 California inches will cover the same area 
only to a depth of 4 ft. in the same time. Fifty California 
inches are, therefore, approximately equal to i second- 
foot, and 50 Colorado inches equal to about three tenths 
more. 

An acre-foot of water is the amount required to cover an 
acre of ground to a depth of i foot. This is 43,560 cubic 
feet, or 325,851.45 gal. Its weight is 1213 tons 2113 pounds, 
at 2240 pounds to the ton. 

The amount of water required to cover an acre of ground 
to a depth of i inch is 3630 cubic feet, or 27,154.29 gal. Its 
weight is loi tons 362I pounds, at 2240 pounds to the 
ton. 

A second-foot is the most satisfactory because the most 
definite unit of measurement for flowing water. It is used 
by the U. S. Government in the gauging of rivers and 
streams, and is rapidly superseding the miner's inch in the 
measurement of water for irrigation. It is the quantity rep- 
resented by a stream i foot wide and i foot deep flowing 
at the average rate of i foot per second. In other words, 
it is I cub. ft. per second, 60 cub. ft. per min., 3600 cub. 
ft. per hour, etc. A stream flowing continuously at the 
average rate of i second-foot would carry in one day of 24 
hours 86,400 cub. ft., or 646,316.9 gal., sufficient to cover 
ijh^ acres to a depth of I ft. Flowing continuously for one 
year of 365 days, such a stream would carry 31,536,000 cub. 



134 AGRlCULTUtlE. 

ft., or 235,905,678.7 gal., sufficient to cover 723^' acres to a 
depth of I ft. 

The sub-humid region is the strip of country running 
north and south between the arid region, where irrigation 
is absolutely necessary to the successful prosecution of 
agriculture, and those portions of the United States in 
which the rainfall is usually sufficient for agricultural pur- 
poses. It includes portions of North Dakota, South Da- 
kota, Nebraska, Kansas, and Texas, and may be described 
as a region where irrigation is not always necessary, but 
where agricultural operations cannot, with any assurance 
of success, be undertaken without it. 

The average value of the irrigated land in farms in the 
United States was ascertained by the census of 1890 to be 
$83.28 per acre, and that of the non-irrigated land in farms 
$20.95 per acre. 

The average annual value of the agricultural products of 
the irrigated land was ascertained to be $14.89 per acre irri- 
gated, and that of those of the non-irrigated land $6.80 for 
each acre improved. 

The average first cost of the irrigated land, including 
purchase money, water rights, etc., was ascertained to 
have been $8.15 per acre, and the average annual cost of 
the water supply $1.07 per acre. 

The total value of the irrigated farms of the United 
States, as reported by the farmers themselves, was, in round 
figures, $296,850,000, an increase of $219,360,000, or 283 per 
cent, upon their cost, including land, water right, fences, 
and preparation for cultivation. 

The total value of the productive irrigating systems was 
found to be $94,412,000, an increase of $64,801,000, or 219 
per cent, upon their cost. 



AGEiCtJLTiJRAL ENGINEERING. 



135 



CARRYING CAPACITY OF PIPES, GALLONS PER 
MINUTE. (Wilcox.) 





— . 


^^ . 


= «• 


— . 


^ . 


„^. 


^^ 


-«• 




rt^ 


OJVh 


Ojvw 


d v„ 


«•*-( 


"H^ 


ci"^ 


rt**^ 


Size of 


feo 


fc 


fco 


fco 


I..0 


^°n 


^8 


^S 


Pipe. 




X! « 




Xi M 


u, 


2 ^ 


g ^ 






C oj 


a « 


c 5 


C y 


C 1) 


<u 


° « 


s 




■V a 


•7 a 


•T a 


■7 a 


■T a 


^ a 


^ a 


^ a 




M 


M 


m 


VO 




'^ 


N 


m 


3 inch. 


13 


19 


23 


32 


40 


46 


64 


79 


4 " 


27 


38 


47 


66 


81 


93 


131 


163 


6 " 


75 


105 


129 


183 


224 


258 


364 


450 


8 " 


153 


216 


265 


375 


460 


527 


750 


923 


9 *** 


205 


290 


355 


503 


617 


712 


1,006 


1,240 


lO " 


267 


378 


463 


655 


803 


926 


1,310 


1,613 


12 " 


422 


596 


730 


1,033 


1,273 


1,468 


2,076 


2,554 


15 " 


740 


1,021 


1,282 


1,818 


2,224 


2,464 


3,617 


4,467 


i8 " 


1,168 


1,651 


2,022 


2,860 


3,508 


4,045 


5,704 


7,047 


24 " 


2,396 


3,387 


4,155 


5.874 


7,202 


8,303 


",744 


14,466 


30 " 


4,187 


5,920 


7,252 


10,557 


12,580 


14,504 


20,516 


2.5,277 



FLOW OF WATER THROUGH STRAIGHT PIPES 

(Collet.) 
Flowing Full, in Gallons per 3Iinute. 



c <" 
.S V 


Head of Water Divided by Length of Pipe. 




1 

100 


1 

oO 


1 
25 


1 
TO 


TU 


T% 


6 


T% 


i 


I 

ij 
2 

2^ 

3 

4 

5 

6 








.024 
.056 
.14 
•31 
•83 
1.8 

4-9 
10 

18 
28 
42 

59 
104 
166 

344 
606 

959 


.036 
.075 
.21 

•44 
1.2 

2-5 
7-T 

14-8 

26 

41 

61 

86 

151 
240 
498 
876 
T389 


.046 
.089 
.26 
•52 
1-5 
3-1 
8.9 
18.4 
32 
51 
76 
106 
188 
298 
617 
1085 
1720 


.06 
.124 

•34 
.72 

2.0 

4.1 
11.7 

24 
42 
67 

TOO 
140 

246 

390 

808 
14x9 
2248 


.077 
•158 
.44 
■92 
2.6 

5^3 

15 

31 

54 

36 
128 
179 

315 
500 

1033 
1815 
2876 


.086 


.22 

.46 

^•33 
2.79 
4.96 

7-93 
II. 7 
16.6 
29 
46 
98 

'73 
227 


•33 

•70 

1.98 

4^15 

7-36 

11.75 

17.4 

24 
43 

69 
144 

254 
404 


•5 

I.O 

2.9 
6.1 
10.8 
17.2 
25^5 
36 
63 

101 

210 

370 

589 


.18 
•50 
1 .04 
2.9 
6.0 
16.9 

35 
61 

97 
144 
202 

354 

562 
1 162 
2040 
3230 



If the diameter be doubled, nearly 5.8 times the quantity can be passed 



136 



AGRICULTURE. 



POWER REQUIRED TO RAISE WATER FROM 
DEEP AVELLS BY PUMPING. (Appleby.) 



Gallons of water raised per hour 


200 


350 


500 


650 


800 


1000 


Height of lift for one man, in feet. . . 
" " " " " donkey, in feet 

" " " " horse, 
" " " " " H.P. steam, ( 
in feet f 


90 
180 
630 

990 


51 
102 

357 
561 


36 

72 

252 

396 


28 

56 
196 

308 


22 

45 
154 
242 


18 

36 
126 

198 



APPROXIMATE COST OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF 
PIPE USED FOR IRRIGATION. (Wilcox.) 



Q 


Sheet Iron or 

Steel Pipe, 
No. 16 B.W.G. 


Sheet Iron or 

Steel Pipe, 
No. 146 W.G. 


Sheet Iron or 

Steel Pipe, 
No. 12 B.W.G. 


Cast-iron Pipe, 

Class B, or 

Medium. 


a 



IU.9' 

l-l 

> 


a. 

c 

•a 





4J 

a 

a 

V 

a 

V 

U 


6 
8 

10 
12 

16 
18 
20 
22 
24 


$0.32 
.42 
•53 
.63 
.69 
.82 
.91 

I. GO 
1.05 


$0.41 

•51 

.60 

.68 

•75 

•93 

1. 00 

1. 14 

1.30 

1.46 


$0.52 

.62 

• 85 

.98 

1. 17 

1.25 

1.43 

1.63 

1.85 

2.00 


|o.72i 

I.04J 
1.42 
1.84 
2.30 

2.83 

3-37 
3-97 
4.62 

5-33 


$o.i6i 
.22 
•33 
•4ii 
•55 
.68f 

.82^ 

.g6i 
1. 21 
^•37* 




$0.74 

■94 
1.08 
1.22 

1.32 
1.40 


$O.I2 
.20 
.26 
•32 
•38 

•45 

:ll 

.68 
.80 







AVERAGE COST PER MILE OF CONSTRUCTING 
IRRIGATING CANALS AND DITCHES. 

(Eleventh U. S. Census.) 



States and Territories. 



General average 

Arizona ... 

California. 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Montana 

Nevada 

New Mexico 

Oregon 

Utah 

Washington , 

Wyoming 

Sub-humid region.. . 



Under 5 Feet 
ia Width. 



380 
205 

32s 
200 
3T0 
260 

493 
285 

303 



5 to 10 Feet 
in Width. 



^1,628 



^1,674 

5.957 

1,131 

810 

800 

1,150 

581 

1,060 

1,025 

1,236 

837 

447 



10 Feet and 
Over in 
Width. 



I5.603 



15,274 

15,5" 

5,258 

1,320 

2,300 

' 6,666 
1,300 
3,072 
2,571 
3.884 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



137 



THE CALIFORNIA WEIR TABLE. (Wilcox.) 



Depth. 


Miner's 
Inches. 


Depth. 

1 


/ 
Miner's 
Inches. 


Depth. 


Miner's 
Inches. 


Depth. 


Miner's 
Inches. 


\4 


.OI 


M 


2.56 


7% 


7.04 


12% 


15-27 


I 


.04 


4, 


2.69 


7H 


7.22 


'3,, 


15-72 


.07 


4^ 


2.81 


7% 


7.40 


13^ 


16.18 




.12 


t 


2 93 


8 


7-58 


13^ 


16.64 


% 


• 17 


3^07 


SH 


7.76 


13M 


17.10 


% 


.22 


4^ 


319 


m 


7-93 


14 


17-57 


% 


.27 


4% 


3^33 


8% 


8.12 


14^ 


18.04 


I 


•33 


:i 


3^47 


8^ 


8.30 


14}^ 


18.52 


^14 


•39 


3.6r 


8% 


8.48 


14M 


19.00 


i^ . 


.46 


5, 


3-75 


8% 


8.67 


15 


19.48 




•54 


5^ 


3-89 


SV8 


8.86 


15^ 


19.98 


i\^ 


.62 


5^ 


4^03 


9 


9-05 


xsV^ 


20.47 


1% 


.69 


5% 


4.18 


9% 


923 


I5M 


20.97 


iM 


•77 


sV^ 


4^32 


9H 


9.42 


16 


21.47 


1% 


.86 


5% 


4-47 


9.62 


1 61^ 


22.47 


2 


•95 


5% 


4.62 


Im 


9.81 


17 


23.50 


ajp^ 


1.04 


4-77 


9% 


10.00 


17^ 


24^54 


2% 


1-13 


6 


4.92 


9% 


10. 19 


18 


25.58 


1.22 


^^ 


S.08 


9% 


10.39 i 


18^ 


26.65 


2^^ 


1.32 


6»4 


5^24 


10 


10.59 


19 


27.74 


2% 


1.42 


6% 


5-39 


10^ 


10 99 


19^ 


28.83 


i 


1-52 


6^ 


5-54 1 


10^ 


II .30 


20 


29.95 


i^63 


6% 


5-71 1 


io% 


11.80 


20^ 


31-07 


3 


1-74 


6% 


5-87 1 


II 


12.22 


21 


32.21 




1.86 


6% 


6.04 


"^ 


12.65 


2lJ^ 


33^36 


3^ 


1.97 


7, 


6.20 


11}^ 


13.06 


22 


34-52 


2.08 


7^ 


6-37 


11% 


13 •SO 


22j^ 


35-70 


3/^ 


2.19 


7M 


6-53 


12 


13-94 


23 


36 90 


3% 


2.31 




6.70 


12^ 


14.38 


23^ 


38.10 


3M 


2.43 


7^ 


6.87 


I2l^ 


14.82 


24 


39-32 



CAPACITY OF CISTERNS AND TANKS, 

ill Gallons, for Each Twelve Inches in Depth. 

(A. R. Wolff.) 



Diameter in 


Gallons. 


Diameter in 


Gallons. 


Diameter in 


Gallons. 


Feet. 




Feet. 




Feet. 




I.O 


5-87 


6-5 


248.23 


II. 


710 . 90 


2.0 


23-50 


7.0 


287.88 


II. 


777.05 


2.5 


36.72 


7-5 


330.48 


12.0 


846.03 


3.0 


52.88 


8.0 


376.00 


13.0 


992.91 


3-5 


71-97 


8-5 


424.48 


14.0 


"51-54 


4.0 


94.00 


9.0 


475-89 


15-0 


1321.92 


4-5 


118.87 


9-5 


530.24 


20.0 


2350.08 


5^o 


146.88 


10.0 


587-52 


25.0 


3672.00 


5.5 


177.72 


10.5 


647.74 


30.0 


5287.68 


6.0 


211. 51 











138 



AGEICULTURE. 



Capacity of Cisterns in Barrels, Per Foot in Depth. 

(Hall.) 



Square Cistern, 



Barrels. 
5 feet by s feet holds 5.92 



8.54 
11.63 

15-19 
19-39 
23-74 



Circular Cistern. 









Barrels. 


S feet in 


diameter holds. 


... 4.66 


6 " " 






... 8.54 


7 " " 






... 11.63 


00 






... 15-19 


" »« 






... 19.39 


10 '• " 






-•• 23.74 



ROAD-MAItlNG. (Campbell.) 

Drainage. — Perfect drainage, first of the foundation of 
the roadbed, secondly of the road surface, are the points 
in road-making on which too much stress cannot be laid. 

The first is accomplished by underdrainage, tile drains 
being laid at a depth of three or more feet below the sur- 
face on each side of the roadbed at the foot of the grade 
and parallel to it. Care should be taken to fit and settle 
the tile in the trench so that, when refilling with earth, 
they will not be displaced. As a rule i\- to 4-in, tile will 
be sufficient. The joints should be close, and the grade 
a true line. Loose joints and an uneven grade allow silt to 
pass into the tile and remain there, destroying the drain. 

Surface drainage is accomplished by open drains on each 
side of the grade, having sufficient capacity to drain, both 
the roadbed and the land adjoining. With open drains and 
with tile drains make and maintain a free outlet to the 
nearest watercourse. A drain without an outlet is useless. 

Crowning the Road. — The graded portion of the road 
should be wide enough to accommodate the travel upon it, 
and not greater, the slope being uniform, not heaped in 
the centre. The crown should be well above the overflow 
of storm water, and should have a grade sufficient to shed 
water readily to the open ditches on either side. Do not 
round it up so as to make the grade steep and dangerous, 
under the mistaken impression that better drainage will 
thereby be secured. Nor should it be so low as to allow 
water to stand upon it in depressions. Under ordinary 
circumstances one inch or one inch and a half to the foot is 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 139 

a proper grade; that is, a roadbed twenty-six feet wide 
should be from thirteen to twenty inches higher at the 
center than at the side. 

Quality of Gravel. — The gravel should preferably be 
sharp, clean, and of uniform size. Pit grav^el usually con- 
tains too much earthy matter, and where the latter is in 
excess, the gravel, as a road-making material, is useless. 
Lake gravel is apt to be rounded, water-worn, and lacking 
in the necessary earthy matter to make a solid and compact 
surface, but is generally a better road material than pit 
gravel, A coating of pit gravel with a surfacing of creek 
gravel is a good combination. All large stones should be 
removed, as they will work to the surface, and will then 
roll loosely or form rough protuberances. 

Placing the Gravel. — The gravel should be spread evenly 
over the surface of the sub-grade to a depth of six or eight 
inches, and to the required width, then rolled with a heavy 
roller. Rolling should be performed in showery weather, 
as it is impossible to consolidate dry earth or gravel. The 
heavier the roller the better will be the results, but if a 
heavy roller cannot be obtained, a light roller is much bet- 
ter than none. The roller should be passed over the sur- 
face until the gravel or earth is so compact as not to be 
displaced and rutted by the wheels of a wagon passing 
over it with an ordinary load. The surface must be main- 
tained smooth and hard, to shed water and resist wear. 
Every municipality should have a roller, but whether one 
can be obtained or not the gravel should not be left in a 
heap just as it falls from the wagon. Spread it evenly. 

Repairs. — Gravel roads already constructed will need re- 
pair. By the use of road machinery, scrape the surface 
and cut off the corners, which will have formed at the foot of 
the grade by the washing down of dusty material from the 
crown of the road. Loosen the surface, particularly that 
part of the traveled portion and where the road is rutted, 
with picks, or, if possible, with road machinery ; then apply 
a coating of gravel, and roll thoroughly. It is of more im- 
portance, however, to see that the drains are not obstructed 
in their course and that their outlets are free and open. 



140 



AGRICULTURE. 



IMPORTANCE OF GOOD ROADS. 

It is estimated that it costs a farmer more to haul a bushel of 
wheat than it does a railroad to haul a ton ; that our poor roads 
cost the farmer at least $15.00 a year for every horse, and that 
good earth roads would save more than half the cost of hauling, 
and good permanent roads more than three quarters of it. 

(GiLMORB.) 

Force Required to Draw a Load on Different Kinds of Roads. 



Earth road 

Gravel " 

Macadam road . . . 
Telford " ... 
Plank " ... 

Stone trackway.. 



Force 

Required to 

Draw a Gross 

Load of 
2240 Pounds. 



Pounds 
200 

65 
46 

I2i 



Steepest 
Grade (rise 
per 100 ft.) 

on which 
Vehicle will 

not Roll 
Back. 



Feet 
8.9 

4 
9 



Draught on a Level Com- 
pared with that on Dif- 
ferent Grades. Rise in 
feet per 100 feet. 



3 


6 


9 


12 


1-3 


"•7 


2.0 


2-3 


1-5 


1.9 


2.4 


2.9 


2.0 


3-1 


4-1 


5-1 


2-5 


3-9 


5-4 


6.8 


2.6 


4-3 


5-9 


7-5 


0.4 


II. 7 


17. 1 


22.3 



15 



2.7 

3-3 
6.1 
8.2 
9.1 
27.5 



TRACTIVE FORCE REQUIRED FOR CARRIAGES 

of one ton, on a level road. (McConnell.) 



Force of Trac- 
Description of Road. tion per Ton. 

On rails 8 lbs. 

Well-made pavement 33 

Macadamized road 44 to 67 

Turnpike, hard and dry 68 

" dirty 88 

Hard compact loam iig 

Gravel 150 

Sandy and gravelly 210 

Ordinary by-road ,. 237 

Turnpike, newly-gravelled 320 

Loose sandy road 457 

A horse produces his greatest mechanical effect in drawing a 
load 2| miles per hour with a tractive force of 150 lbs. 



I. 
2. 

3- 
4- 
5. 
6. 

7- 



9 
10 
II 



AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 



141 



FRACTION OF THE WEIGHT OF A VEHICLE 
AND LiOAD REQUIRED TO MOVE SAME ON A 
LEVEL. ROAD. (Morin.) 



Character of the Road. 



Firm sgil, covered with gravel 

4 to 6 inches deep 

Firm embankment, covered 

with gravel i^to ijinch. deep, 
Earth embankment, in very 

good condition 

Bridge flooring of thick oak 

plank 

Broken-stone Road : 
In very good condition, very 

dry, compact and even 

A little moist or a little dusty.. 
Firm, but with ruts and mud. 
Very bad, ruts 4 to i,\ inches 

deep, thick mud 

Good pavement, dry 

" " covered with 
mud 



Character of the Vehicle. 









•a tn 



ro 



IT 

1 
59 



4_, to" C 

o o c 
x: u o 



T? 



Walk. Trot 



B7 

1 



0.2^ Q, 



Ttl 

I 

5S 

1 
?5 



W alk. Trot 



DRAUGHT OF HORSES. 

At 8 hours per day, 2^ miles per hour, and tractive force of 
1 50 lbs. : 

On level hard road 3 tons 

On inferior or hilly road i " 

Onrails 16 " 

Onacanal 60 to 90 " 

Lifting over a pulley no '* 

Carrying on his back 300 ^bs. 



142 



AGRICULTURE. 



LABOR ONE HORSE IS ABLE TO PERFORM 

at different rates of speed on canals, railroads, and 
turnpikes. (Drawing force, 83^^ lbs.) (Waring.) 







Useful Effect for i Day, drawn i mile. 




Duration of 
Day's Work, 




Speed per 








Hour, miles. 


hours. 


On a Canal, 


On a Railroad, 


On a Turnpike, 






tons. 


tons. 


tons. 


^H 


"^ 


520 


T15 


14 


3,, 


8 


243 


92 


12 


sH 


6 


154 


82 


10 


4 


414 


102 


72 


9 


: 5 


2 9/10 


52 


57 


7-3 


/ 6 


2 


30 


48 


6 


' 7 


i^ 


19 


41 


5 


8 


ij^ 


12.8 


36 


45 


9 


9/10 


9 


32 


4 


10 


H 


6.5 


28.8 


3.6 



PERFORMANCE OF ONE TEAM AND PLOUGH IN 
A DAY, IN ACRES AND TENTHS. (Waring.) 



^.S . 




<« ° 




- s 




•".S 




,. tn 




,. tn 












_. H? U 




tfl 4) 




"5 .^• 




M 4J 




5 ^-c 


Acres. 


^2S 


Acres. 




Acres. 




Acres. 


&=- 




^a" 




^3 




^1 




5 


I.O 


12 


2.4 


2 


4.8 


5^ 


13.2 


6 


1.2 


14 


2.8 


2^ 


6.0 


6 


14.4 


7 


1.4 


16 


3-2 


3 


7.2 


6>^ 


15-6 


8 


1.6 


18 


3-6 


sJ^ 


8.4 


7,, 


16.8 


9 


1.8 


20 


4.0 


4,, 


9.6 


7^ 


18.0 


10 


2.0 


22 


4-4 


4^ 


10.8 


8 


19.2 


II 


2.2 






5 


12.0 







AGRICULTURAL ENGINEERING. 143 

THE EFFECT OF WIDE WAGON-TIRES. 

The effect of wide and narrow tires for wagons is well 
illustrated by the following results of carefully conducted 
experiments by the Studebaker Wagon Co., West Bend, Ind. 
In the trials given in the second column i|-inch tires 
had been substituted for 4-inch tires. (Agr. of Pa., 1894.) 



Weight of wagon and load 

Draft to start load on block pavement 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on block pave- 
ment 

Draft to start load on good hard, sandy road 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on good hard, 
sandy road 

Draft to start load on good level gravel road 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on good level 
gravel road 

Draft to start load on muddy road 

Draft to move load at a dead pull on muddy road.. 



Width of Tires. 


4 inches. 


xj inches. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


4345 


4235 


350 


300 


100 


75 


700 


725 


275 
600 


300 
650 


175 
800 


175 
900 


550 


500 



AVERAGE QUANTITY OF STONE REQUIRED PER 
YEAR TO KEEP 10 FEET OF ROAD, WIDTH = 
20 FEET, IN REPAIR. (Herschel.) 



Cub. ft. 

1. Good material and heavy travel 15-20 = 

2. Good material and medium amount of 

travel 10-15 = 

3. Good material and light travel 5-10 = 

4. Medium material and heavy travel. .. . 20-25 = 

5. Medium material and medium amount 

of travel 15-20 = 

6. Medium material and light travel 10-15 = 

7. Third-rate material and heavy travel. . 25-30 = 

8. Third-rate material and medium amount 

of travel 20-25 = 

9. Third-rate material and light travel. . . 15-20 = 



Cub. yds. 
•55- .74 

37- .55 
18- .37 
74- -92 

55- -74 
37- -55 

92-1. ID 

74- -92 
55- .74 



144 



AGRICULTUKE. 



INTERIOR DIMENSIONS OF FARM BUILDINGS. 

(McCoNNELL.) 

Height. 



Barn ... 

" (straw) 

Cattle feeding-boxes, double 

" " " single 

Cattle-sheds, for each animal 

Cart-sheds, etc., each arch 

Cow-stable, for each cow, double 

"■ " " " " single 

Dairy — 

Fold -yards, for each animal 

Granary 

Hospital 

Manure-house 

Pigsties, for each 3 animals 

Poultry- house 

Root-house 

Stable, for each horse 

Workshop . 

General dimensions of other apartments 



Length. 


Breadth. 


ft. 


ft. 


40 


20 


60 


20 


10 


20 


10 


10 


5 


15 


8 


20 


4 


30 


4 


20 


20 


20 


5 


30 


30 


20 


18 


18 


18 


18 


6 


10 


18 


18 


ao 


20 


6.5 


18 


18 


18 




18 



ft. 

20 
20 



8 

10 
10 
10 
10 

6 



6^ ft. allowed to the length of the stable for each horse in it 
and 7 or 8 ft. for every pair of cows in cow-stable. Horses 
must each have 1200 cu. ft. of space, and cattle 800 cu, ft., 
where stalled in stables. Cattle-boxes to be sunk 2 ft. below 
surface and raised by a dwarf wall i ft. above. Cattle-folds 
and sheds should have a length of 5 ft. for every animal they 
are intended to contain; when covered, 150 sq. ft. allowed to 
every head. The pigsties have small open areas attached to 
each. 



HUMAN FOODS. 



146 



XII. HUMAN FOODS. 

COMPOSITION OF HUMAN FOOD MATERIALS.* 

(Atwater.) 

Ordinary food materials, such as meat, fish, eggs, pota- 
toes, wheat, etc., consist of — 

Refuse. — As the bones of meat and fish, shells of shellfish, 
skin of potatoes, bran of wheat, etc. 

Edible Portion. — As the flesh of meat and fish, the white 
and yolk of eggs, wheat flour, etc. The edible portion con- 
sists of water and nutritive ingredients or nutrients. 

The principal kinds of nutritive ingredients are protein, 
fats, carbohydrates, and mineral tnatters. 

The water, refuse, and salt of salted meat and fish are 
called non-nutrients. In comparing the values of different 
food materials for nourishment they are left out of account. 

Classes of Nutrients. — The following are familiar examples 
of compounds of each of the four principal classes of nutri- 
ents 

[Albuminoids, e.g., albumen (white of 

eggs); casein (curd) of milk ; myosin, 
the basis of muscle (lean meat) ; 
Proteids. \ gluten of wheat, etc. 

Gelatinoids, e.g., collagen of tendons; 
ossein of bones; which yield gelatin 
Protein. \ i or glue, etc. 

Meats and fish contain very small quantities of 
so-called "extractives." They include kreatin 
and allied compounds, and are the chief ingre- 
dients of beef-tea and meat-extract. They 
contain nitrogen, and hence are commonly 
classed with protein. 
Fats, e.g., fat of meat ; fat (butter) of milk ; olive-oil ; oil 

of corn, wheat, etc. 
Carbohydrates, e.g., sugar, starch, cellulose (woody fiber), 
etc. 

* Extracts from " Foods, Nutritive Value and Cost " (Farmers' Bulletin 
No. 23), and " Food and Diet " (U. S. Dcpt. of Agriculture Year book, 1894), 



146 AGRICULTUEE. 

Mineral ^natters, e.g., phosphate of lime, sodium chlorid 

(common salt), etc. 

The Fuel Value of Food. — Heat and muscular power are 
forms of force or energy. The energy is developed as 
the food is consumed in the body. It is measured in the 
laboratory by means of an apparatus called the calorimeter. 
The unit commonly used is the calorie, the amount of heat 
which would raise the temperature of a pound of water 
four degrees Fahrenheit. 

Taking ordinary food materials as they come, the follow- 
ing general estimate has been made for the average amount 
of heat and energy in i pound of each of the classes of 
nutrients: 

Calories. 

In I pound of protein i,86o 

In I pound of fats 4,220 

In I pound of carbohydrates 1,860 

In other words, when we compare the nutrients in re- 
spect to their fuel values, their capacities for yielding heat 
and mechanical power, a pound of protein of lean meat or 
albumen of egg is just about equivalent to a pound of 
sugar or starch, and a little over two pounds of either 
would be required to equal a pound of the fat of meat or 
butter or the body fat. 

Ways in ivJiich Food is Used in the Body. — Food supplies 
the wants of the body in several ways. It either — 

Is used to form the tissues and fluids of the body; 

Is used to repair the wastes of tissues; 

Is stored in the body for future consumption; 

Is consumed as fuel, its potential energy being trans- 
formed into heat or muscular energy, or other forms of 
energy required by the body; or. 

In being consumed protects tissues or other food from 
consumption. 

Uses of the Different Classes of Nutrients. — Protein forms 
tissue (muscle, tendon, etc., and fat) and serves as fuel. 

Fats form fatty tissue (not muscle, etc.) and serve as fuel. 

Carbohydrates are transformed into fat and serve as fuel. 



HUMAN FOODS. 147 

All nutrients yield energy in form of heat and muscular 
strength. 

In being themselves burned to yield energy the nutrients 
protect each other from being consumed. The protein and 
fats of body tissue are used like those of food. An impor- 
tant use of the carbohydrates and fats is to protect protein 
(muscle, etc.) from consumption. 

Definition of Food and Food Eco7iof>iy. — The views thus 
presented lead to the following definitions; (i) Food is 
that which, taken into the body, builds tissues or yields 
energy; (2) the most healthful food is that which is best 
fitted to the wants of the user; (3) the cheapest food is that 
which furnishes the largest amount of nutriment at the 
least cost; (4) the best food is that which is both most 
healthful and cheapest. 

We have, then, to consider the kinds and amounts of 
nutrients in different food materials, their digestibility, and 
the kinds and amounts needed for nourishment by people 
doing different kinds of work. 

In general, the animal foods have the most of protein 
and fats, while the vegetable foods are rich in the carbo- 
hydrates, starch, and sugar. The lean meats and fish 
abound in protein. Cheese has so large a quantity of 
protein because it contains the casein of the milk. Among 
the vegetable foods, beans and peas have a high proportion 
of protein. The proportion in oatmeal is also large. In 
wheat it is moderate, and in corn meal it is rather small. 
The materials with the highest fuel value are those with 
the most fat, because the fuel value of the fat is, weight 
for weight, two and one-fourth times as great as that of 
either sugar, starch, or protein. Hence fat pork and butter 
lead the other materials in fuel value. The fat meats in 
general stand high in this respect. So also do the grains, 
flour, and meal, as they have large quantities of carbo- 
hydrates. Potatoes are quite l^w in the list in respect to 
fuel value as well as protein, principally because they are 
three-fourths water. For the same reason, milk, which is 
seven-eighths water, ranks low in respect to both protein 
and fuel value. 



148 



AGRICULTURE. 



Dietaries and Dietary Standards. — As the outcome of 
a great deal of observation and experiment, nearly all in 
Europe, standards have been proposed for the amounts 
of nutrients and energy in the daily food required by 
different classes of people. Those of Prof. Voit, of Munich, 
Germany, are most commonly accepted by specialists in 
Europe. Voit's standard for a laboring man at moderately 
hard muscular work calls for about 0.25 pound of protein 
and quantities of carbohydrates and fats sufficient, with 
the protein, to yield 3050 calories of energy. Taking into 
account the more active life in the United States, and the 
fact that well nourished people of the working classes here 
eat more and do more work than in Europe, and in the 
belief that ample nourishment is necessary for doing the 
most and the best work, I have ventured to suggest a 
standard with 0.28 pound of protein and 3500 calories of 
energy for the man at moderate muscular work. (For list 
of dietary standards, see p. 155.) 

Calculation of Daily Dietaries. — Due regard for health, 
strength, and purse requires that food shall supply enough 
protein to build tissue and enough fats and carbohydrates 
for fuel, and that it shall not be needlessly expensive. 

On the basis of the standards for dietaries given on 
page 155, various combinations of food materials for daily 
dietaries may be made by calculations from the table, 
showing percentages of nutrients, etc., in food materials 
(p. 149). Thus if a dietary for a man at moderately hard 
muscular work is to be made up of round beefsteak, butter, 
potatoes, and bread, it may be calculated as follows: 







Protein. 


Calories. 


R.ound steak 


I pound contains 


Pounds. 
.18 
.01 
.019 

.088 


855 


Butter 


I pound contains 


3,615 




I pound contains 


325 
1,280 


Wheat bread 


I pound contains 


13 ounces contain 




Round steak. 


.14 

.02 
.12 


695 


Butter 

Potatoes . 


3 ounces contain 


680 


6 ounces contain 


320 


"Wheat bread 


22 ounces contain 


1,760 




Total 

Standard for man at mod- 
erate muscular work. . . . 






.28 
.28 


3.455 
3,500 



HUMAN FOODS. 



149 



PERCENTAGES OF NUTRIENTS, WATER, AND 
REFUSE IN SPECIMENS OF FOOD MATERIALS. 

(Atwater.) 



Food Materials. 



Animal Foods, as Purchased. 

Beef; Neck 

Shoulder 

Chuck rib 

Rib 

Sirloin 

Round steak 

Side without kidney fat 

Rump, corned 

Flank, corned 

Veal: Shoulder 

Mutton : Shoulder 4 

Leg 

Loin 

Side, without kidney fat. 

Pork: Shoulder roast, fresh 

Ham, salted, smoked 

Chicken 

Turkey 

Eggs, in shell 

Fish, etc.: Flounder, whole 

Bluefish, dressed 

Codfish, dressed 

Shad, whole 

Mackerel, whole 

Halibut, dressed 

Salmon, whole 

Salt codfish 

Smoked herring 

Salt mackerel 

Canned salmon 

Lobsters 

Oysters 



Animal Foods, Edible Portion. 

Beef: Neck 

Shoulder 

Chuck rib .... 

Rib 

Sirloin 

Round 

Side, without kidney fat. . . 

Rump, corned 

Flank, " 

Veal: Shoulder 

Mutton: Shoulder .. 

Leg 

Loin . .. 



eQ=: 



e<J 



20.0 
12.6 
14.6 

21 .0 

19-5 

7.8 

19.2 

5-0 
12.1 
17.9 
16.3 

18. 1 
iS-8 

17-3 
14.6 
II. 4 
38 2 
324 
13-7 
66.8 
48.6 
29.9 
50.1 
44.8 
17.7 

35 3 
42.1 

50-9 
40.4 
4.9 
62.1 
82.3 



Edible Portion. 



49.6 
55-8 
49-5 
38.2 

48.3 
60.9 

44-3 
70.8 

43-7 
56.7 
49.0 
50.6 

41 -5 
44.2 

43 -o 
36.8 
44.6 

44-7 
63.1 
27.2 
430 
58.5 
35-2 
40.4 
61 .9 
40.6 

40.5 
19.2 
28.1 

59-3 
31.0 

15-4 



62.0 

63-9 
58.0 
48.1 
60.0 
68.2 
54-8 
58.1 
49.8 
68.8 
58.6 
61.8 
49-3 



Nutrients. 



30.4 
31.6 

35-9 
40.8 
32.2 
31-3 
36-5 
24.2 
44.2 
25-4 
34-7 
31-3 
42.7 

38.5 
42.4 
51.8 
17.2 
22.9 
23.2 

6.0 
II. I 
II. 6 
14-7 
150 
20.4 
24.1 
17.6 
29.9 
31-5 
35-8 

6.9 

2-3 



38.0 
36.1 
42.0 

51-9 
40.0 
31.8 
45-2 
41.9 
50.2 
31.2 
41.4 
38.2 
50-7 



15-6 
17.0 
15.0 
12.2 
15.0 
18.0 
13-9 
16.7 
12.4 
16.6 
15. 1 
15.0 
12.6 
15.0 
13.6 
14.8 

^5-1 

16. 1 

12. 1 

5-2 

9.8 

10.6 

9.2 

10. o 

I5-I 

14-3 

i6.o 

20.2 

14.7 

19-3 

5-5 

I.I 



14.0 

13-7 
20. 1 
27.9 
16.4 
12.3 
21.8 

51 
29.2 

7-9 
18.8 
15.6 
29-5 
23-7 
28.0 
34-6 

1.2 

5-9 
10.2 

0-3 
0.6 
0.2 

4.8 

4-3 
4.4 
8.8 
0.4 
8.8 
15-1 
15-3 
0.7 
0.2 



17-5 
15-6 
23 -5 
35-6 
20.5 
10. 1 
27 I 
26.6 
33-0 
9.8 
22.4 
19.0 
35-0 



J3 






0.8 
0.9 
0.8 
0.7 



2.4 
2.6 

0.9 



2.4 
0.9 
0.9 
0.9 

0.5 
0.7 
0.8 
0.7 
0.7 
0.9 

I.O 
1.2 
0.9 

1-7 

1.2 
0.6 
0.4 



1.0 
1.0 
0.9 
0.9 
1.0 
1.2 
0.9 
2.0 
30 
1.2 
0.9 
0.9 
0.7 



150 



AGRICULTURE. 



COMPOSITION OF FOOD MATERIALS. 

Nutritive ingredients^ refuse, and fuel value. 



Nutrients. 



Non-nutrients. 



Protein Fats. Carbo- Mineral 
hydrates, matters 



Water. Refuse. 



Fuel value. 



Calories. 



Protein compounds, e. g:., lean of meat, white of egg, casein (curd) of milk, and 
gluten of wheat, make muscle, blood, bone, etc. 
Fats, e. g., fat of meat, butter, and oil, ) serve as fuel to yield heat 
Carbohydrates, e. g., starch and sugar, f and muscular power. 



Nutrients, etc.. 'p. ct. 10 20 30 40 50 60 



70 



80 90 iOO 



Fuel value of 1 lb. 400 800 1200 1600 3Q0O 2400 2800 3200 3600 4000 




Without bone. 



HUMAN FOODS. 



151 



PERCENTAGES OF NUTRIENTS, ETC., IN FOOD 

MATEHIALiS.—Continteed. 



Food Materials. * 



Animal Foods, Edible Portion. 
Mutton: Side, without kidney fat 
Pork: Shoulder roast, fresh 

Ham, salted, smoked 

. Fat, salted 

Sausage: Pork 

Bologna 

Chicken 

Turkey 

Eggs 

Milk 

Butter 

Oleomargarine 

Cheese: Full-cream 

Skim-milk 

Fish: Flounder 

Haddock 

Codfish 

Shad 

Mackerel 

Halibut 

Salmon , 

Salt cod 

Herring, salt , 

Mackerel, salt 

Oysters 

Vegetable Foods. 

Wheat flour 

Graham flour (wheat) 

Rye flour 

Buckwheat flour 

Oatmeal 

Cornmeal , 

Rice , 

Peas 

Beans , , 

Potatoes , 

Sweet potatoes 

Turnips 

Carrots 

Onions 

String beans 

Green peas 

Green corn 

Tomatoes 

Cabbage 

Apples.. 

Sugar, granulated 

Molasses 

White bread (wheat) 

Boston crackers 



Edible Portion. 



53-5 
50-3 
41-5 

12. 1 

41.2 
62.4 
72.2 

66.2 
73-8 
87.0 
10.5 
II. o 
30.2 

41-3 
84.2 

81.7 

82 

70 

73 

75 

63 

53-6 

34-6 

43-4 

87.1 



12.5 
131 
13-1 
14.6 
7.6 
15.0 
12.4 
12.3 
12.6 
78.9 
71. 1 

89.4 
88.6 
87.6 
87.2 
78.1 
81.3 
96.0 
91.9 
83.2 



Nutrients. 



46.5 
49-7 
58.5 
87.9 
58.8 
37-6 
27.8 
33-8 
26.2 
13.0 
89.0 
895 
69.8 

58.7 
15-8 
18.3 
17.4 
29.4 
26.6 
24.6 
364 



12.9 

87.5 
86.9 
86.9 

85-4 
92.4 
85.0 
87.6 
87.7 
87.4 
21. 1 
28.9 
10.6 
II. 4 
12.4 
12.8 
21.9 
18.7 
4.0 
8.1 
16.8 
98.0 

75-4 
67.7 
91.7 



16.9 
16.0 
16.7 
0.9 
13-8 
18.8 
24.4 

23-9 
14.9 

3-6 
i.o 
0.6 
28.3 
38.4 
13.8 
16.8 
15-8 
18.6 
18.2 
18.3 
21.6 
21 .4 
36.4 

17-3 
6.0 



II. o 

II. 7 

6.7 

6.9 

15 I 

9. a 

7-4 

26.7 

23.1 

2.1 

1-5 



1.4 
2.2 

4-4 
2.8 
0.8 



10.7 



28 

32.8 

39 

82.8 

42.8 

15-8 



IO-5 
4 

85 

85-0 

35 
6.8 
0.7 

0-3 
0.4 

9 

7 

5 
134 

0-3 
15-8 
26.4 



1-7 

0.8 

1.4 

7- 

3- 

o 4 

1-7 



04 
0.2 
0.4 

0-3 
0.4 
0.6 
I.I 
0.4 

0.3 
0.4 



1-7 
9-9 






3-7 



74-9 
71.7 

78.7 
76.1 
68.2 
JO. 6 
79-4 
56.4 
59-3 
17.9 
26.0 
8.2 
8.9 
10. 1 

9-4 
16.0 
13.2 
2.5 
5-5 
15-9 
97.8 

73-1 
56.3 
68.7 






0.9 
0.9 
2.7 
4.2 

2.2 
30 
1-4 
1.2 
0.8 
0.7 

3-0 

3-0 
4.2 
4.6 
13 



0.5 
1.8 
0.7 
1.0 
2.0 
1.4 
0.4 
2 9 

31 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
0.6 
0.8 
0.9 
0.6 
0.3 
I.I 

0.3 
0.2 

2.3 
0.9 
2.4 



153 



AGRICULTURE. 



PECUNIARY ECONOMY OF FOOD. 

Amounts of actually nutritive ingredients obtained in different 
food materials for 25 cents. 
[Amount of nutrients in pounds. P'uel value in calories.] 
Protein. Fats. Carbohydrates. Fuel value. 



Weights of nutrients and calories of 
energry in 85 cents worth. 



10000 Oal. 




'Voit 



^Atwater. 



HUMAN FOODS. 



153 



AMOUNTS OF NUTRIENTS FURNISHED FOR 
TWENTY-FIVE CENTS IN FOOD MATERIALS 
AT ORDINARY PRICES. (Atwater.) 



Twenty-live Cents will 

O rt 



Food Materials as Furnished. 



Meats, etc. 

Beef: Neck 

Chuck-ribs , 

Ribs 

Shoulder 

Sirloin 

Rump 

Round, first cut 

Round, second cut. . 
Flank, corned 

Corned and canned . 

Liver 

Mutton: Shoulder 

Leg 

Loin 

Pork: Rib roast 

Smoked ham, whole 

Salt fat pork 

Pork sausage 

Poultry, etc.: Chicken 

Turkey 

Fish, etc. 
Mackerel, whole 

Bluefish, dressed 

Cod, dressed 



-a 






cts. 

w 
\t 

j 22 
I18 

S M 
} 10 

J .8 

I 15 

ii8 

I 15 
jio 

1 8 

1 10 

*x8 

I 14 

8 

j 20 

I 15 



\ 

( 20 

\t 

\ 12 
J 22 

j 23 
I 18 

I" 

\ 10 



pay for 



lbs. 

3-13 
4.17 
1.56 
2.08 
1. 14 

1-39 
1.79 
2.50 
1. 14 
1-39 
1-39 
1.67 

1-39 
1.67 
2.50 

3 13 
1.67 
2.50 

1-39 
1.79 

313 
1-25 
1.67 
1.00 

1-25 
1. 00 

1-25 
2.08 
2.50 
1.56 
2.08 
1.67 
2.08 
1.67 
2.08 
1. 14 
1.56 
1.09 



1-39 
1.67 
2.50 
1 .67 
2.50 
2.50 

3-13 
4.17 



Nutrients. 



lbs. 



lA 
fe 



lbs. lbs. 



95 


•49 




.27 


•65 




•56 


•23 




75 


•31 




•47 


•14 




57 


•17 




•57 


■30 




■79 


•43 




■37 


•^7 




•45 


.21 




•63 


.19 




.76 


■ 23 




•44 


•25 




•52 


•30 




•52 


•.35 




•65 


■44 




.77 


.21 




.11 


•31 




.66 


•37 




■85 


.48 




.96 


•63 




■41 


.18 




• 58 


•25 




•31 


•15 




•39 


.19 




■43 


•13 




.53 


.15 




.88 


.28 




.06 


■34 




.86 


•25 




.08 


•3' 




•17 


.02 


I. 


.0^ 


.02 


I. 


•98 


•13 




.22 


•29 




•32 


.28 




•45 


•.38 




•37 


.26 




•47 


•32 




.22 


.14 




•25 


•117 




•37 


•25 




.19 


.16 




.28 


•25 




.28 


•25 




■36 


•33 




.48 


•44 





ll 



lbs. 



o o c 
U 



cals. 

2765 
3655 
1735 
2350 
1610 
i960 
1615 

2235 
1 1 20 
1360 
2170 
2620 
1180 

1445 
1285 
1580 
2460 

3655 
1700 
2200 
2095 
1265 
1775 
955 
1195 

1465 
1840 
2970 
5885 
2915 
3615 
5860 
7295 
3465 
4295 
605 

835 
865 



515 
610 
930 
340 
550 
505 
655 
860 



154 



AGRICULTURE. 



AMOUNTS OF XLTRIENTS FURNISHED FOR 
TWENTY-FIVE CENTS IN FOOD 3IATERIALS 

AT ordinary: prices.— C^«^/««^./. 



Food Materials as Furnished. 



Fish, etc. 

Halibut steaks 

Canned salmon 

Oysters, 50 cts. per quart 

j5 • ■ • 

Lobster, whole 

" canned 

Eggs and Dairy Products. 
Eggs, 35 cts. per doz 



•• 15 •• 

Milk, 8 cts. per quart. 

" 6 " " . 

t( (i (( 

Butter 



Cheese, full cream. 



Vegetable Foods. 

Potatoes, $1.00 per bushel. 
.80 " 
.50 " 

Sweet potatoes 



Beets . 



Turnips 
Sugar . . . 



Dried beans. 

Maize " corn' 
Oatmeal 



meal. 



Wheat flour 



Wheat bread 
Crackers. . . . 



ft, 



cts 
20 
[6 
20 
25 
17.5 



(2C 

2C 
2" 



10 



25 
18.2 



Twenty-five Cents will pay for 



o rt 



Nutrients. 



lbs. 
1.2 
1.56 
1.25 
1. 00 
1.43 
2.08 
2.50 
1.25 



1. 00 

1-37 
2.27 
6.25 

8.33 
12.50 

•71 
1. 00 
1.38 

2.o3 



14.70 

20. 00 

29.40 
5.00 

8-33 

12.50 

25.00 

12.50 

25.00 

5.00 

4.17 

5-00 

6.25 

8.33 
25.00 
5.00 
6.2 
7.14 
8-33 
3-57 
5.00 
2.08 



lbs. I 

.26i 

•32 

.46 

• 13 
.18 
.14 

• ^1 
.28 



•23 
•32 

•53 

.81 

1.08 

X.63 

.64 

.90 

.96 

1.45 



o 

PH 

lbs. 
.19 
.24 

• 25 
.06 
.09 
.11 
.14 

• 23 



•17 



•23 



U 



.31 .03 
.42 .04 

.62! .06 



.14 
•24 
•14 
.29 

•13 

.27 

4.90 



641 

37 
.46; 
.08! 
,25 
.61; 

0.251 

7.29J 

2.421 

3-38 

1. 91 .21 

2.88l_.32 



.00 
.01 
.02 
.04 
.02 

•03 
.00 
.96 

t-i5 
[.44 

•77 
J. 30 

•74 
.69 

•79 
.92 

•31 
•44 



lbs 
.06 
.07 
.20 
.01 
.02 
.01 
.02 
.01 



o o c 



lbs. 



•29 
.39 
•59 



.02 
.04 

.26 
•36 
•53 
•13 



4 

2.47 
2.96 
3^70 
5-88 
17-65 
3-42 
4.68 

5-35 
6.24 
2.01 
2.82 
1.47 
2.21 



HUMAN FOODS. 



155 



DIETARY STANDARDS. (Jaffa.) 



1. Children, 1-2 years (average) 

2. Children, 2-6 years (average) 

3. Children, 6-15 years (average) 

4. Adult in full health— Playfair 

5. Active laborers — Playfair 

6. Man at moderate work — Voit 

7. Man at hard work — Voit 

8. Man with little physical exercise 

Atwater 

9. Man with light muscular work— At- 

water 

10. Man with moderate work — Atwater 

11. Man with active work — Atwater 

12. Man with hard work — Atwater 

13. Subsistence diet — Playfair 

14. Average of 7 dietaries of professional 

men, Europe 

15. Average of 5 dietaries of professional 

men, United States 



2 ^ 







Carbo- 
hydrates, 
Lbs. 


Fuel Va- 
lue (Calo- 
ries). 


.06 


.08 


.16 


765 


•13 


.09 


•44 


1420 


.16 


.10 


•71 


2040 


.26 
.34 


.11 
.16 


1. 17 

1^25 


3140 
3630 


.26 


.12 


1. 10 


3055 


•32 


.22 


•99 


3370 


.20 


.20 


.66 


2450 


.22 


.22 


•77 


2800 


.28 

•33 


.28 
•33 


•99 
no 


3520 
4060 


•39 
•13 


■55 
•03 


1.43 
•75 


5700 
1760 


•25 


.22 


.63 


2670 


.27 


•34 


1.08 


3925 






:5.6 
5-0 
5-2 
5^5 
47 
53 
4-7 

5-5 

5-7 
5^8 
5-6 
6.9 
6.3 

4^7 
6.6 



156 AGRICULTURE, 

DIAGRAMS OF CUTS OF MEAT. 




Diagram I. A Good Steer's Carcass, as Cut Up and Priced in the 

Eastern Market. 

A good 1200-pound Steer will dress about 800 pounds of 
beef cut up as above — 715 pounds salable cuts, with 85 
pounds of fat, bone, and waste. 

The diagram illustrates what the breeder and feeder 
should aim to produce in the conformation of the beef- and 
mutton-producing animal, so that the highest possible per- 
centage of the carcass will be cuts of the high-priced class, 
thereby giving the best possible return for food consumed. 
(McKerrow.) 

The methods of dividing up the carcasses of slaughtered 
animals into parts, and the terms used for the "cuts," as 
these parts are commonly called, vary considerably in dif- 
ferent localities. The accompanying diagrams will make 
clear the terms used in the table Composition of Human 
Foods (pp. 149-51). 



HUMAJf FOODS. 



156rt 




II. Diagram of Cuts of Veal.* 




III. Diagram of Cuts of Mutton.* 




IV. Diagram of Cuts of Pork.* 



* U. S. Dept. of Agriculture. 



1565 



AGRICULTURE. 



LIVE AVEIGHT AND DRESSED AVEIGHT OF STEERS 
OF DIFFERENT BREEDS AND AGES. (Henry.) 



{Sjuithfield Show, 1888-95.) 











Live 




Breed and Age. 


No. of 
Ani- 
mals. 


Aver. 
Age. 


Aver. 
Daily 
Gains. 


Weight 
at 1 
Slaugh- 
tering. 


Dressed 
Weight. 






Days 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Per Ct. 


Shorthorn, i year olds.. 


5 


642 


2. II 


1355 


66.1 


2 " " . 


18 


963 


1 .92 


1842 


67-5 


3 " " •- 


16 


i:;2i 


1.72 


2251 


69.4 


Hereford, i " " . 


16 


663 


1.97 


1308 


65.1 


2 " " .. 


13 


1020 


1.78 


1817 


67.2 


3 " " -■ 


8 


1349 


1 .64 


2218 


69.2 


Devon, i " " . 


13 


634 


t-75 


1112 


66. q 


2 " " ., 


19 


1045 


1-51 


J 583 


67.7 




16 


1311 


1-37 


1796 


67 3 


Aberdeen Angus, i " " . . 


26 


668 


2.04 


1366 


65-4 


2 " " .. 


21 


1008 


I 74 


1765 


66.7 


3 " " -- 


2 


1346 


1-59 


2138 


67.4 


Sussex, I " " .. 


17 


677 


2.15 


1452 


65-4 


2 " " . . 


18 


9S9 


1.86 


1837 


68.2 


3 " " ■• 


12 


1285 


1. 61 


2064 


68. 


Red Poll, 2 " " .. 


12 


1002 


1 .64 


1631 


65-7 


3 " " •■ 


6 


1^62 


I 49 


2022 


65.8 


Galloway, 2 " " . . 


7 


1027 


1 .64 


1688 


64-5 


3 " " •• 


4 


1344 


1-47 


1969 


64.8 



PROPORTION OP BEEF TO THE LIVE WEIGHT 
OF CATTLE. (McConnell.) 





Live Weight, 

Pounds 
Avoirdupois. 


Per Cent of Beef. 




Class I. 


Class n. 


Class in. 


Heifers . .. 


Under 2520 

" 2520 

1680-2 100 

I 4 00-1680 
I 400-1 680 
1260-1400 
I 260-1 400 
1 120-1260 
11 20-1 260 
980-1120 
Under 980 


70.72 
69.71 
66.68 
66.68 
62.65 
62 65 
57 61 
57.61 
53 - 56 
53-56 


66.69 
66.69 
63.65 
63 65 
60. 62 
60.62 
54-59 
54-59 
50.53 
50.53 




Steers. . 

Steers 


' 63.66 


Heifers 

Steers 

Heifers 


63.66 
57.62 
57.62 


Steers 


51 .56 


Heifers 

Steers 

Heifers 


51-56 
48.50 
48.50 


Heifers 


45-47 









HUMAN FOODS. 



157 



C031PARATIVE RESULTS OBTAINED WITH 

FATTENING ANIMALS. (Lawes and Gilbert.) 

{a) Per lOO lbs. live weight per week. 





Received by Animal. 


Results Produced. 




Total 

Dry 

Food. 


Digestible 
Organic 
Matter. 


Food Con- 
sumed for 
Heat and 
Work. 


Dry 

Manure 

Produced. 


Increase 
in Live 
Weight. 


Oxen 

Sheep 

Pigs 


lbs. 
12.5 
16.0 
27.0 


lbs. 

8.9 

12.3 

22.0 


lbs. 

6.86 

9.06 

12.58 


lbs. 
4-56 
5.10 
4-51 


lbs. 

1-13 
1.76 

6.43 





{J)) In relation to food consuvied. 






Increase in Live 

Weight. 


On 100 lbs. of Dry Food. 




Per 100 

lbs. Dry 

Food. 


Per 100 lbs. 
Digested 
Organic 
Matter. 


Consumed 

for Heat 

and Work. 


Dry 

Manure 

Produced. 


Dry 

Increase 
Yielded. 


Oxen 

Sheep 

Pigs 


lbs. 

9.0 

1 1 .0 

23.8 


lbs. 
12.7 

14-3 
29.2 


lbs. 

54-9 
56.6 
46.6 


lbs. 

36.5 
31-9 
16.7 


lbs. 

6.2 

8.0 

17.6 



LIVE WEIGHT AND GAINS MADE BY SWINE. 

(Henry and Sanborn.) 















Per 100 Lbs. Live 


Live 


No. of 
Ani- 
mals. 


Aver. 

Live 

Weight. 


Feed 
Eaten. 


Daily 
Gain 
Made. 


Feed 

per Lb. 

of 

Gain. 


Weight. 


Weight. 


Feed 


Gain 














Eaten. 


Made. 


Lbs. 




Lbs 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Under 50 


59 


37-7 


2.31 


.701 


3-3° 


6.13 


1.86 


50-100 


91 


75-5 


3-33 


.900 


3-70 


4.41 


1. 19 


100-150 


119 


126. 1 


4.29 


1.029 


4.17 


340 


.82 


150-200 


138 


176.2 


6-45 


1. 123 


5-75 


3-66 


.64 


200-250 


65 


214. 1 


6.89 


1.287 


5-35 


3.22 


.60 


250-300 


41 


266.4 


7.64 


1-457 


5.24 


2.87 


•55 


300-350 


12 

525 


333 


6.02 


I • 352 


4-45 


1. 81 


.41 



158 



AGRICULTURE. 



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HUMAN FOODS. 



159 











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160 



AGRICULTURE. 



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pH K-3 S ci< {/) c75 c/) 



PART II. DAIRYING, 



I. DAIRY COWS. 

ON THE ORIGIN AND CHARACTERISTICS OF THE 
DIFFERENT BREEDS OF DAIRY CATTLE. 

I. Jersey Cattle. 

The origin of the Jersey cattle, like many of our other 
improved breeds of live-stock, is not known with cer- 
tainty. The theory is that they descend from cattle 
brought from the Scandinavian countries to Normandy, 
France, during the tenth century or before, whence they 
were introduced into the Island of Jersey, off the French 
coast. The breed has been kept pure on this little island 
for a longer period than any other English breeds, as a 
result of the enactment in 1789 of a law forbidding im- 
portations of foreign cattle into the island. According to 
Flint, Jerseys were first imported into this country about 
1838, but heavy importations did not begin until after 1850. 

The following is a description of typical Jersey cows: 
Head fine and tapering; cheek small; throat clean; the 
muzzle fine and encircled with a slight stripe; the nostril 
high and open; the horns smooth, crumpled, not very 
thick at the base, tapering, and tipped with black; ears 
small and thin, deep orange color inside; eyes full and 
placid; neck straight and fine; chest broad and deep; bar- 
rel hooped, broad and deep, well ribbed up; back straight 
from the withers to the hip, and from the top of the hip 
to the setting on of the tail; tail fine, at right angles with 
the back, and hanging down to the hocks; skin thin, light 
color, and mellow, covered with fine soft hair; forelegs 
short, straight and fine below the knee, arm swelling and 
full above; hind quarters long and well filled; hind legs 



162 DAIRYING. 

short and straight below the hocks, with bones rather fine, 
squarely placed, and not too close together; hoofs small; 
udder full in size, in line with the belly, extending well up 
behind; teats of medium size, squarely placed and wide 
apart, milk veins very prominent; color is generally 
cream, dun, or yellow, with more or less white. 

The Jerseys are generally considered a butter-producing 
breed, and justly so. The milk produced is as a rule richer 
in fat and solids than that of any other breed, but the 
quantity yielded, on the other hand, is apt to be lower. 
Milk from good Jersey cows often contains over six per 
cent of fat, the average being about five per cent. Produc- 
tion of rich milk has been the primary aim of Jersey 
breeders; in 1881 the secretary of the American Jersey 
Cattle Club wrote: " The sole office of the Jersey cow is 
to produce the largest possible amount of rich, highly 
colored cream from a given amount of food. Everything 
else in connection with the breeding of the race is, or 
should be, incidental." 

The highest yields of butter-fat or butter, in case of 
Jersey cows as well as other dairy breeds, are not, how- 
ever, apt to come from cows producing exceptionally rich 
milk, but rather from such producing an exceptionally 
large quantity of good milk; generally speaking, an ex- 
traordinarily high fat-content is accompanied by a small 
milk yield. 

Typical Jerseys generally have a high-strung, nervous 
temperament, and in order to do their best must receive 
good care; they cannot be abused as to feed or treatment 
without injury; for this reason they will only prove a suc- 
cess in the hands of intelligent feeders who care for and 
take an interest in their stock. The dairy type predomi- 
nates, viz.: a wedge-shaped, deep-chested body, with 
good digestive organs, large full udders, well-developed 
milk-veins, and a soft, mellow skin. The cows are gentle 
and docile, while the bulls have the reputation of being 
hard to handle, and often ugly and dangerous after a couple 
of years' service. 

The maximum yields of milk and butter produced by 
Jersey cows are given on page 189, the table giving the 



DAIRY COWs. 163 

official records. In the breed-tests conducted by the ex- 
periment stations in Maine, New Jersey, and New York 
(Geneva), the Jerseys have ranked among the first, but 
have seldom been the foremost. As the average of all tests 
of dairy breeds up to date, we notice that the Jerseys rank 
after the Shorthorns and the Guernseys in total yield of 
fat during a full period of lactation, and after Guernseys in 
the cost of producing one pound of fat; they rank first as to 
richness of milk produced. In the English milking trials 
conducted by the British Dairy Farmers' Association, the 
Shorthorn cows have generally led the Jerseys in the 
total quantities of fat produced per day, and other breeds 
have also, on the average, given better results than these. 
The Jerseys came out victorious in the breed-tests con- 
ducted at the World's Columbian Exposition in 1893; they 
produced more milk, butter-fat, butter, and cheese, and 
gave a higher net gain than either of the two other breeds 
competing (Guernsey and Shorthorn); the Guernseys, on 
the other hand, led as regards the cost of the food con- 
sumed. In the breed-test No. i (" the fifteen-day cheese 
test") Ida Marigold, 32615, produced the largest quantity 
of cheese, viz.: 70.92 lbs., and Merry Maiden, 69449, the 
largest quantity of butter-fat, viz.: 30.73 lbs. In breed- 
test No. 2 ("the ninety-day test") Brown Bessie, 74997, 
produced 17S.12 lbs. of butter-fat. Merry Maiden and Ida 
Marigold following, with 164.S1 lbs. and 164.28 lbs., re- 
spectively. 

The American Jersey Cattle Club was organized in July 
1868; the Herd Registo- of the club, the first volume of 
which was published in 1871, has been issued in forty-five 
volumes up to date, including in all 42,000 bulls and 109,000 
cows. Butter Tests of Registered Jersey Cows gives all tests 
of registered Jerseys where the yield of butter for seven 
consecutive days was 14 lbs. or more; the latest volume 
published is Vol. II., New Series. 

The present secretary of the American Jersey Cattle 
Club is J. J. Hemingway, No. 8 W. Seventeenth St... New 
York City. 



164 DAIRYING. 



II. Guernsey Cattle. 

By Prof. W. H. Caldwell, Peierboro, N. H,, Sec'y Am. Guernsey Cattle 

Club. 

The Guernsey breed takes its name from the Island of 
Guernsey, one of the Channel, or sometimes termed Alder- 
ney, Islands. The origin of the Channel Island cattle, 
while somewhat involved in controversy, is generally be- 
lieved to have come from stock originally from the French 
provinces of Normandy and Brittany, and that the founda- 
tion for the Guernseys was laid by crossing the Normandy 
bull on the Brittany cow. It is very interesting to turn to 
the Island of Guernsey, cut off as it is from the main land 
by the little strip of sea, and protected on all sides by 
a rough, rocky coast, and note the characteristics which 
we find there that have played so important a part in 
moulding the character of the Guernsey of to-day. There 
the shrewd, careful, sturdy people have labored many years 
to produce a cow that should excel in butter production. 
Their labors have been rewarded in the Guernsey, which is 
noted the world over for producing butter of the highest 
natural color and with the least outlay for cost of feed. 
Fate might have been different with these people but for 
their insular situation, pride of self-government, habits and 
customs, which led them to zealously fight invasions, and 
even as early as 17S9 to take measures against the fraud- 
ulent importation of stock. In 1826 came more stringent 
laws, that prohibited importation to the island except for 
slaughter. It thus isolated the islanders and their cows 
from the cattle kingdom. 

The striking appearance of the Guernsey is at once seen 
in its rich yellow skin, which has always been noted as the 
characteristic of a good butter-cow. In appearance they are 
rangy, deep, business-looking animals, with a particularly 
quiet, gentle, tractable temperament, free from nervous- 
ness. The prevailing color is a delicate shade of fawn with 
white markings, and cream-colored nose; and their most 
remarkable characteristic of richness is apparent in the 



DAIRY COWS. 165 

golden color around the eye, on the udder and teats, at 
base of horn, and at end of the bone of tail. 

Until recently Guernseys in America were kept chiefly 
for family use. They were introduced into private dairies 
around Philadelphia as early as 1840, and since that time no 
other breeds have been permitted to replace them. The 
gentlemen who first introduced Guernseys had no motive 
to advertise them. They esteemed their golden-colored 
products so highly that they were kept for the supplying 
of families with the best milk and butter that could be pro- 
duced. About 1865 a few Guernseys were introduced by 
the importers, which laid the foundation of some of our 
herds of to-day. A few years later the Massachusetts So- 
ciety for the Promotion of Agriculture, realizing the great 
promise of the breed, imported some and distributed them 
at a public sale to dairymen in the State. A few years 
later a number of Connecticut farmers joined together and 
sent a man to the island to bring over a lot. It soon became 
obvious to these gentlemen that some organization was 
necessary to preserve the purity of these cattle and to 
encourage their recognition. Accordingly on February 7. 
1877, the American Guernsey Cattle Club was organized in 
New York City. At that time there were about one hun- 
dred and fifty pure-bred Guernseys in the country, whose 
pedigrees could be traced without question to importation 
from the island. At present there are about 14,000 animals 
in the Register. In the last few years — in fact since the 
World's Fair Dairy tests in 1893, and the work at the New 
York and New Jersey Experiment Stations — great interest 
has been taken in the Guernseys. More entries and trans- 
fers have been recorded, and more members have joined 
the Club than at any similar period in its history. The 
public are just realizing the straightforward work that 
has been quietly done for the last quarter of a century, and 
find in a study of it that there are many valuable records to 
the credit of the breed. These are all the more valuable as 
the Guernsey has not been forced for high records, but 
have honestly won their way. 

The best records reported of Guernseys are those of Lily 



166 DAIRYIKG. 

of Alexandre, No. 1059, and Imp. Bretonne, No. 3660. Lily 
of Alexandre gave 12,855! pounds of milk in one year ; and 
two months before calving tested 7.2 per cent of butter-fat. 
Bretonne gave in the year ending October 20, 1894, 11,219 
pounds of milk. Her milk was tested carefully once a 
month by taking a composite sample of eight consecutive 
milkings. The lowest test was 5.2 per cent and highest 
6.1 per cent butter-fat. Her milk yielded 602^^^ pounds 
of butter-fat, or equivalent to 753^^0 pounds of butter con- 
taining 80 oer cent butter-fat. She is a large, well-built 
• ow, and weighed at the close of her year's work 1150 
pounds. In addition the cow Fantine 2d, No. 3730, owned 
by Mr. Chas. Solveson of Nashotah, Wis., gave in one year, 
besides dropping a fine calf and being dry four weeks, 9748 
pounds of milk, the lowest test being 5 and the highest 
5.6 per cent butter-fat, which -would yield a year's record 
of 516.6 pounds butter fat or 602 pounds of butter. Mr. 
Ezra Michener of Carversville, Pa., owns the cow King's 
Myra, No. 5339, who has just completed the year's test 
under the direction of the Guernsey Breeders* Association 
and received their first prize. She is four years old, and 
gave in the year 86ir pounds of milk, which yielded 539 
pounds of butter. Nearly a hundred cows have been re- 
ported that have made a record of 14 pounds or over of 
butter a week, and several that have made exceedingly fine 
single-day tests, as one cow. Pretty Dairymaid 2d of 
Guernsey, No. 6366, who in an official test gave in three 
consecutive days 61 pounds 2 ounces, 62 pounds 12 ounces, 
and 52 pounds and 9 ounces of milk, a total of 176 pounds 
7 ounces. 

The irability to produce butter-fat and butter at a low 
cost demands the careful attention of the dairymen. At 
the New York Experiment Station several of the dairy 
breeds are being carefully tested. The annual report of the 
director, which was recently issued, gives the result of the 
first two periods of lactation. In both instances the Guern- 
seys produced butter-fat at the least cost, as the following 
shows : 



2d Period. 


15 


6 cts. 


18 


5 '* 


19 


" 


24 


8 " 


22 


8 " 


26 


4 " 



DAIRY COWS. 167 

COST OF BUTTER-FAT PER POUND. 

ist Period. 

Guernsey 18.4 cts. 

Jersey 20.0 " 

Devon 23.0 " 

Ayrshire 24.3 " 

Am. Holderness 26.3 " 

Holstein-Friesian 26.3 " 

This agrees with the work done at the New Jersey Ex- 
periment Station and with the average results of the butter 
tests at the World's Fair. 

COST PER POUND OF BUTTER PRODUCED. 

New Jersey. World's Fair. 

Guernsey 15.3 cts. 13. i cts. 

Jersey 17.9 ** 13-3 " 

Ayrshire 20.6 " .... 

Shorthorn 20.8 " 15.8 *' 

Holstein 22.4 '* 

This shows the Guernseys to be the most economical 
producers of butter ; and such golden-yellow butter, too ! 

The American dairyman, in his endeavor to improve his 
own herd and collectively to improve the herds of his sec- 
tion, naturally takes a great deal of interest in the grade 
dairy cow. In the progressive dairy sections the influence 
which pure-bred bulls exert is readily acknowledged. 
They intensify the good qualities of the breed to which 
they belong, and make such a section a desirable place for 
the seeking of good family and profitable dairy cows. The 
value of the Guernsey bull in effecting this improvement 
has been well understood for many years, and especially is 
it realized to-day in the desire to secure in the dairy cattle 
of America greater physical strength and more profitable 
butter production without reducing size or sacrificing rich- 
ness of milk production. Mr. Lewis F. Allen, in his writings 
several years ago, spoke especially of his experience with 
the Guernsey for grading. He said his experience was 
good, large-sized animals, free and persistent milkers, and 



168 DAIHYIICG. 

the making of the first quality butter for private family or 
hotel use. He believed that on a whole the Guernseys 
were more satisfactory for the dairy than any which in his 
forty years' experience he had ever had. His cows had 
good square udders, well set front and behind, teats of 
good size and easy to grasp. 

The Herd Register is published by the American Guern- 
sey Cattle Club, whose headquarters are at Peterboro, N. 
H. The breeders of Guernseys have always been harmoni- 
ous in letting their favorites win their way by their own 
straightforward efforts in the dairy. By addressing the 
Secretary of the Club at Peterboro, N. H., further informa* 
tion will cheerfully be furnished. 

III. Holstein-Friesian Cattle. 

By S. HoxiE, Yorkville, N. Y., Supt. Advanced Registry Holstein- 
Friesian Association of America. 

This is our American representative of the Lowland 
race, native to the low, rich lands of Belgium, Holland, 
and Northern Germany. Its origin ij ascribed to the 
Friesians — a tribe of people mentioned by Roman historians 
before the opening of the Christian era as peaceable cattle- 
breeders dwelling on the shores of the North Sea. The 
present dairy farmers of the provinces of North Holland 
and Friesland are the lineal descendants of those cattle- 
breeders, and they are to-day handling the same race upon 
the same lands. These farmers are the leading dairymen 
of Europe. As evidence of this. Chambers' Encyclopedia* 
gives the export of butter from the province of Friesland 
to England in 1S74 as 266,041 cwt. The number of cows 
owned in that province in 1S79 was 144,802. Assuming 
the same number in 1874, this export averages 205! lbs. 
per cow; assuming the same number of acres of grass 
lands, this export averages ii7|^ lbs. per acre. No data of 
home consumption or of exports to other countries are 
given. These combined must have been large, and, were 
they added, would much increase these averages. Lest 

♦ Edinburgh and London edition, article " Friesland." 



DAIRY COWS. 169 

some reader may assume that a part of this enormous ex- 
port must have been oleomargarine or artificial butter, it is 
well to add here that no such products were known in 
Friesland at that date. 

According to U. S. Consular reports on Cattle and Dairy 
Farming, the amount of butter imported from Holland into 
Great Britain in 1877 was 41,679,085 lbs. in 1884, of cheese, 
65,994,544 lbs. The import of butter for 1877 rather 
than for 1884 is quoted, because the former date was "be- 
fore oleomargarine had become an industry in that coun- 
try,"* There is no question that nearly all these imports 
were from the two provinces, North Holland and Fries- 
land. The country we call Holland is composed of eleven 
provinces with a total area of 12,597 sq. miles. The total 
area of North Holland and Friesland is 2303 sq. miles. 
To get the significance of the above statistics, let them be 
compr.red with the total imports, to the same common mar- 
ket, from the United States and Canada. These in 1884 
were, of butter 17,440,416 lbs., and of cheese, 109,333,280 
lbs. So far as this breed of cattle is concerned, it is safe 
to let the reader draw his own conclusions. 

As to the characteristics of this breed the most important 
is indicated by the above statistics. To the casual observer 
the color may appear the more striking. This is variegated 
in distinct markings. The American herd-books receive 
only black-and-white to entry. The European herd-books 
receive red-and-white, gray-and-white, and mouse-colored- 
and-white; but the great bulk of their entries are black-and 
white. The structure of this breed is also an important 
characteristic. This is best shown by measurements. The 
average measurements of ail the full-age cows (those five 
years old and upwards) received to the fourth volume of 
the Holstein-Friesian Advanced Register were as follows: 
Height at shoulders, 51.8 -j- inches; at hips, 53; length of 
body, 64.9 -f ; of rump, 21.4 — ; width of hips, 21.9 — , at 
thurl, 19.6 -|-; girth at smallest circumference of chest. 
75.6 -j-. These are fairly representative of the breed, and 
describe what is technically called the milk-and-beef form. 
* U. S. Consular Reports [1886J— Cattle and Dairy Farming, p. 15. 



170 DAIRYING. 

There are animals of the breed of other forms, but they 
must be regarded as exceptional in this respect. The 
average weight of these cows was 1262 -f- lbs. This is also 
fairly representative of the breed. Rapidity of growth and 
earliness of maturity are alike characteristics of the breed. 
This may also be shown by measurements. Taking the 
entries in one of the European herd-books, we find, from 
actual measurements reported, that heifers reach their full 
height at between two and a half and three years old, that 
each year for the following two years they increase one 
and three fourths inches in length of body, two inches in 
girth of chest, and three-fourths of an inch in width of 
hips. After five years old no increase is shown except 
what may be properly ascribed to additions of flesh. 
Another characteristic is constitutional vigor. No dairy 
breed probably excels it in this. It enables the breed to 
resist disease, to endure climatic changes, and its cows to 
endure forcing to enormous productions. In the reign of 
Peter the Great, importations of this breed were made into 
Northern Russia, into the district of Kolmogory, within 
three and a half degrees of the Arctic Circle. Other impor- 
tations to the same district have since been made. All 
appear to have acclimated without difficulty. Crossed on 
the nondescript native cattle of that district they have pro- 
duced a numerous progeny called the Kolmogory breed, 
" remarkable for its yield of milk."* 

Every breed has limited adaptations. A breed valuable 
in one section may not be valuable in another that differs 
in soil, lay of territory, and wants of its inhabitants. The 
adaptations of this breed make it specially valuable on rich 
soils, level lands, and in densely populated districts, where 
every product — milk, butter, cheese, beef, and veal — can be 
utilized. In view of these facts, the merits of a breed may 
properly be measured by its distribution — by its aggres- 
siveness. Judged by this standard, we find that this breed 
is the exclusive breed of North Holland and Friesland, 
" more esteemed than any other in Belgium;"! " furnishing 

* U. S. Consular Reports [1886]— Caitle and Dairy Farming, p. 519. 
+ The same, p. 367. 



DAIRY COWS. 171 

the best and most prolific milch cows in Germany;"* 
crossed on native cattle, the " favorite in St. Petersburg,"! 
and used in almost every country of Europe outside of 
Switzerland and Great Britain. At the present time it is 
finding place in South Africa, New Zealand, and in some of 
the states of South America. Its introduction and spread 
in our own country, within the present generation, is one 
of the marvels of our day. 

IV. Ayrshires. 

By C. M. WiNSLOw, Brandon, Vt., Secretary Association of Ayrshire 

Breeders. 

The original home of the Ayrshire cow is in Scotland, 
in the county of Ayr. This county has always been noted 
for its dairy industry, and the thrift of its inhabitants. 
The soil is strong, giving good pasturing and abundant 
crops, the climate is rough, and people and cattle hardy. 

The Ayrshires began to attract the attention of dairy- 
men in other parts of the world some fifty years ago, and 
there was an importation made into Canada and the New 
England states, where they are bred in considerable num- 
bers and highly prized. They have been sent South, and 
are said to endure the heat better than any other breed. 
They also are said to stand the cold of Canada better than 
any other dairy breed. 

The Ayrshire cow is of medium size, weighing about one 
thousand pounds, of blocky build, low on legs, and usually 
spotted in color, being red and white as a rule, though 
sometimes nearly red. They are hardy and healthy, en- 
during changes of heat and cold with little discomfort, and 
quickly adapt themselves to surrounding conditions. They 
perhaps show to the best advantage where the food sup- 
ply is limited, and they are compelled to hunt for a full 
supply. 

It is claimed for the cows of this breed that they will 
give the largest return of dairy product for food consumed 
of any of the dairy breeds. There has never been much 
said or done by the owners of Ayrshires to bring their 
merits to the attention of the public. They are a popular 

* U. S. Consular Reports [1886]— Cattle and Dairy Farming, pp. 39^, 404, 
t The same, p. 515. 



172 DAIRYING. 

cow for the milkman, because they are economical pro- 
ducers and because they give milk of good quality that 
satisfies the trade. 

High-grade Ayrshire cows always command the highest 
fancy price in Brighton, to go into the stables of milk pro- 
ducers. It 13 said by the milk inspectors of Boston that 
they have no trouble with the milk from Ayrshire herds, 
it being up to the 13 per cent total solids required by Massa- 
chusetts law. 

The average yield of Ayrshire cows is a little over 6000 
lbs. of milk in a year, on ordinary dairy food and care, but 
there are a large number of individual cows with authenti- 
cated records all the way from 7000 lbs. to over 12,000 lbs. 
of milk in a year. There has never been any attempt 
made to develop the butter quality of the Ayrshire cow, 
and but little is known of her ability in this direction; but 
occasional evidence shows her to be naturally adapted to 
taking a high stand as a butter maker, if she was desired 
for that branch of dairying. The following instances of 
her butter quality will illustrate: 

Duchess of Smithfield, owned by Mr. Watson, gave an 
official record of 19 lbs. 6 oz. of butter in seven days. 

Rena Myrtle, a cow sold by the writer to the experiment 
station at Burlington, Vt., gave them this last year 546 lbs. 
of butter in 365 days, being the largest butter record they 
ever made by any cow of any breed. Her milk record for 
the time was 12,172 lbs. 

I might mention other instances, but they are private 
records. 

The Ayrshire, being a dairy cow, has never been claimed 
for beef or even for a general purpose cow, but her easy 
keeping qualities and hardy disposition cause her to lay 
on flesh rapidly when dry, and she will probabl}^ return to 
her owner in beef the full cost of raising her. Farmers 
who fatten calves for veal tell me the calves are small 
when born, but grow so rapidly that when of age to sell, 
are large and heavy for their age and are good handlers, 

[Mr. Winslow's herd of Ayrshires averaged during 1895 
6765 lbs. of milk; average per cent of fat, 3.85; average 



DAIRY COWS. 173 

yield of butter fat, 260.5 ^bs., or of butter, 303.9 lbs. (see 
p. 244). In maintaining his herd he adheres to the following 
requirements: 

" Size: About 1000 pounds at maturity, this size having 
been found to give the best results in this locality, and 
being of sufficient size to please buyers, either for breeding 
or to sell in Brighton as milk cows. 

" Color: Dark red with white patches — about one-fourth 
white being preferred. This gives a wonderfully attractive 
and lively look to a herd of cows, grouped or moying. 
Th€n, too, I have thought cows of this color were tougher 
and gave yellower milk and butter. 

" Style: Small head and horns, slim neck, straight back, 
sharp shoulders, wide on the loin; large, shapely hind 
quarters; long, slim tail; udder extending well forward 
and back, well up under belly; teats long, of equal length, 
well spread; large milk veins. 

" Disposition: Quiet and pleasant." — W.] 

V. Shorthorns as Dairy Cows. 

By J. H PicKRELL, Springfield, 111., Secretary American Shorthorn Breed- 
ers' Association. 

Away back in the early history of this country, there 
were occasionally cows imported from England. Buffalo 
and wild game were abundant for meat, but milk, butter, 
and cheese did not come that way. 

As creatures of circumstances, cows were in demand. 
Soon after the Revolutionary War, cattle that were pure- 
bred Shorthorns were imported into Virginia, and after- 
wards, in 1797, found their way into Kentucky. The cows 
were said to be great milkers, and are reported to have 
given as much as 32 quarts of milk per day, and were 
called by the natives " the milk breed." Later importa- 
tions with more particular reference to their beef qualities 
were made, but, in spite of all that had been fed into them 
with that end in view, many of the cows developed into 
remarkably heavy milkers, and were very noted for their 
large yield of a good quality of milk. 

The late L. F. Allen, in his history of "American Cat- 
tle," published in 1868, says: "We have numerous well- 



174 DAIRYIN^G. 

authenticated instances of their (Shorthorns) giving six, 
seven, eight, and even nine gallons a day, on grass alone, 
in the height of their season, and yielding fourteen to 
eighteen pounds of butter per week, and of holding out in 
their milk in proportionate quantity, as well as other 
breeds of cows, through the year. Cows so much larger 
in size than other kinds should be expected to give more 
than smaller ones that consume less food, and without as- 
serting that they do give more, in proportion to their size, 
it is claimed that when educated and used for the dairy 
chiefly, they give quite as much as others. That the in- 
herent quality of abundant milking exists in the Short- 
horns, no intelligent breeders of them need doubt. Our 
own observation in more than thirty years' experience 
with hundreds of them, first and last, under our own eyes, 
is to ourself evidence of the fact, both in thoroughbreds 
and grades." 

The Columbian dairy tests, though made under un- 
favorable circumstances, proved the milking qualities of 
Shorthorns. I say unfavorable, because the matter was 
not taken hold of soon enough by the American Short- 
horn Breeders' Association, under whose auspices the ex- 
hibit was made, to select the best cows in every instance 
so as to have them bred to produce and have them at their 
highest flow of milk at the proper time. As a conse- 
quence, cows had to be picked up that had produced at 
hap-hazard, and were riot in every instance the best that 
might have been used, if selections had been made in sea- 
son to have them bred so as to have them produce just prior 
to the tests. But with all these disadvantages, the two 
strictly acknowledged dairy breeds — bred for that purpose 
almost exclusively — which were selected with the greatest 
care, so much so that it is doubtful whether they could be 
duplicated, had but little the advantage of the Shorthorns in 
the general ** round-up," as a few comparisons will prove. 

In test No. i (cheese), with 25 cows of each breed, the 
score stood as follows: 

Jerseys 906. i points 

Shorthorns 905.5 " 

Guernseys ••••• « 871.9 '< 



DAIRY COWS. 175 

In the score for perfection of lOO points flavor was counted 
55 points. 

Shorthorns headed the list by taking 504.3 points. 

Jerseys 497-8 " 

Guernseys 489.4 " 

The cost of production was : 

Shorthorns $99.36 

Jerseys 98.14 

Guernseys 76.25 

The champion cheese cow of the Jerseys netted $6.97 

" " " " " Shorthorns netted.. 6.27 

" " " Guernseys " .. 5.27 

In the second test, 90 days, for butter, loss and gain in 
live weight, where maintenance was counted against the 
cows, the net gain was for 

Jerseys (25 cows) $1,323.81 

Guernseys (25 cows) 997-63 

Shorthorns (24 cows) 9ir-i3 

To produce this result it cost the 

Jerseys (25) $587-87 

Shorthorns (24) 506. 50 

Guernseys (25) 487.25 

The champion 

Shorthorn cow (Nora) produced 3679.8 lbs. of milk. 
Jersey (Brown Bessie) " 3634 " " " 

Guernsey (Materna) " 3548.8 " " 

When reduced to gain in the products over cost of pro- 
duction, the account stood as follows : 

Jersey cow $73.22 

Guernsey cow 57-82 

Shorthorn cow 52.63 

Again, in tests 2, 3, and 4 (Guernseys were not • 
in test No. 4) the three best Shorthorns (one in each 

test, including the two-year-old heifer) gave 5861 lbs. 

While the Jerseys of the same description gave. • 5330 " 

Showing in favor of Shorthorns 531 " 



176 DAIRYING. 

In test No. 3 (butter), "go as you please," 
The champion Jersey cow at a cost of ^8.57 pro- 
duced net $24.69 

The champion Shorthorn cow at a cost of $8.18 

produced net 19-57 

The champion Guernsey cow at a cost of $5.57 pro- 
duced net $19-37 

In test No. 4 (heifers) 7 Jerseys cost for food $34.43 

and netted 56.27 

6 Shorthorns cost $23.52 and netted 47-42 

making an average of 13 cents per head in favor of the Jer- 
seys. 

While butter was rated by points, beef was not, and the 
Jerseys got as much allowance per pound for gain in live 
weight as the Shorthorns. 

As hinted above, dairy cows are not always wanted for 
butter alone, or cheese alone, but very frequently to sup- 
ply city customers with good milk for their tables. The 
tests at the Columbian Dairy School proved that for a 
large supply of milk of the best flavor, Shorthorns not 
only were good dairy cows in every sense of the term, but 
that they led the other two breeds. Therefore, if milk of 
good quality and lots of it is wanted, Shorthorn cows can 
supply it, to say nothing of their " general-use " qualities 
that will just suit the farmer who wants milk, butter, 
cheese, and beef. 

VI. Red Polled Cattle. 

By J. McLain Smith, Dayton, Ohio, Secretary Red Polled Cattle Club of 

America. 

Hornless or polled cattle have existed in the counties of 
Norfolk and Suffolk, England, from time immemorial. 
Originally there were two distinct types: the Suffolks, 
usually of a pale red or dun color, and hence known as 
Suffolk duns — large and rather rough cattle, but celebrated 
for their milking qualities; and the Norfolks, commonly 
deep red in color, smaller, finer, more compact in build, 
not so large milkers, but great favorites with the butcher. 



. DAIRY COWS. IVV 

Youatt, speaking of the old Suffolk strain as it existed 
in his day (some half century ago), says: " In the height 
of the season some of these cows will give as much as eight 
gallons of milk (80 lbs.) in a day, and six gallons (60 lbs.) 
is not an unusual quantity." 

The modern Red Polled cow is a result of the combina- 
tion of these old strains, and it is the aim of the most pro- 
gressive breeders to produce a cow of medium size, blood- 
red in color, of fine bone, smooth and compact of form, 
hardy, docile, fatting easily, and giving a good flow of 
fairly rich milk all the year round. The breed, in other 
words, is being developed as a general farm cow, suited 
to the wants of the general farmer. While the cows can- 
not, I think, compete in flow of milk with the best Hol- 
steins, or in yield of butter with the best Jerseys, and the 
steers have not, as yet, taken a place in the front rank at 
the fat-stock shows, it is believed that the breed combines 
the several desirable traits as well at least as any other, and 
with them the equally essential qualities of hardiness, do- 
cility, and a hornless head. As an illustration of the points 
named, and a proof of their possible combination, the cow 
No. 2213, Gleaner, V, 9, is credited in 1894, according to 
the accepted record of the owner, with a yield of 14,189 lbs. 
of milk, an average of 38 86 lbs. a day for the entire year. 
The cow was then twelve years old, and was milking with 
her tenth calf (or tenth calving, as one or more of them 
produced twins). 

Among these is a pair of twins (Freemartins), shown 
as fat stock, at Norwich and London, England. The steer 
(ist and cup at Norfolk and ist at Smithfield") weighed at 
I year 5 J months old, 1238 lbs., and when shown again, 
at 2 years 6 months old, had a live weight of 1735 lbs., a 
gain in a few days over a year of 497 lbs., and a gain 
from birth of about 2.12 lbs. a day. The heifer, twin to 
above (ist and reserve for cup at Norfolk and ist and 
reserve for cup at Smithfield), had a live weight when 
shown (2 years 6 months old) of 1452 lbs., a gain from birth 
pf nearly 1.8 lbs. a day. 



178 DAIRYING. 

An illustration nearer home is reported by Dr. J. R. 
Slingerland, Trustee of the Shaker Society at Union Vil- 
lage, O. In January. 1S95, he bought 35 head of Shorthorn 
steers, coming 2 years old, for feeding. At the same time 
they had 18 head, the same age, of their own breeding, the 
produce of a Red Polled bull on Shorthorn cows. At the 
time named the full-blood Shorthorns averaged 940 lbs. in 
weight, and the cross-breds 790 lbs. All were pastured the 
summer of 1895, fed out in the late fall, and sold to the 
same buyer on the same day in January, 1896. 

The full-blood steers consumed an average of 85 bushels 
of corn, besides hay and corn-fodder, in fatting, and weighed 
when sold an average of 1540 lbs. each — a gain of 600 lbs. 
in the year. They sold for $4 a hundred. The polled cross- 
breds consumed an average of 50 bushels of corn, with 
corn-fodder only for roughage, and weighed when sold an 
average of 1492 lbs. — a gain in the year of 702 lbs. They 
sold for $4.25 a hundred. 

The Red Polled bull, Osman 1251, used in producing the 
cross-bred steers in this trial, is the son of a full sister to 
Eleanor, and is the sire of many fine dairy cows. 

In appearance the Red Polls greatly resemble Devons, 
save the horns, and except that they are somewhat larger, 
and the cows, as a rule, are better milkers. They have the 
same rich color, fine bone, round, smooth, compact form, 
free from prominent points, and the same muscular habit 
and active disposition ; and their meat is of the same fine- 
grained, juicy character. 

Milking Qualities. — The modern Red Polled cow does not 
milk so largely as the old Suffolk, but her milk is of better 
quality. Sixty pounds a day, which Youatt says in his time 
was not unusual, is now, I think, somewhat rare. Four 
and a half to five gallons a day, or say 40 to 45 lbs., is a 
good yield from a mature cow in the flush of the season. 
But she will easily give, with proper care, 6000 to 8000 lbs. 
in a year, and some will considerably exceed this. In the 
report of English herds, published in the Red Polled Herd 
Book, the average yields of mature cows in the best herds 
is from 5000 to over 7000 lbs. a year. In Lord Rothchild's 



DAIRY COWS. 179 

herd, 22 cows, seven milking with first or second calf, gave 
in 1895 an average of 7744^ lbs. of milk each. In my own 
little herd the mature cows will average over 6000 lbs. of 
milk a year and 4 per cent of fat. 

Beef Qualities. — In this line, so far, we are entirely de- 
pendent for facts on the English records. No full-blood 
steers of the breed have as yet been shown in this country. 
A few samples will suffice. At the Smithfield Club Show in 
1SS9, two Red Polled steers, two years old, showed the 
largest daily gain of anything on exhibition that old — 2.18 
lbs. and 2.29 lbs., respectively. At the Smithfield Club 
Show of 1890 a Red Polled steer dressed the highest per 
cent of his live weight of any animal slaughtered — 73.72 
per cent. This, according to the London Live Stock Journal, 
has only once been exceeded in England — by a cross-bred 
steer, which dressed 74 per cent of his live weight. 

At the fat-stock shows in England in 1894 the following 
live weights were recorded : A steer i year io| months, 
1374 lbs., and a year later 1702 lbs. ; a steer i year loj 
months, 1323 lbs.; a steer i year io| months, 1208 lbs., and 
a year later 1656 lbs. ; a steer i year 9 months, 1250 lbs., a 
year later 1728 lbs., and at 3 years 9 months 2112 lbs. 

Mature Red Polled cows, in breeding condition, should 
weigh 1200 to 1400 lbs., and bulls 1800 to 2000 lbs. A few 
will greatly exceed these weights, but many, as now bred, 
are smaller. These, however, are about the weights at- 
tained in the best herds. 

VII. Devon Cattle. 

By L. P. SissoN, Wheeling, W. Va., Secretary American Devon Cattle Club. 

The Devon breed of cattle is one of the oldest of the 
English cattle. Their native home is on the highlands of 
Devonshire, in southwestern England. Our records show 
that in the year 1800 Messrs. Winthrop & Davenport im- 
ported Devons into Plymouth, Mass. ; in 1805 General Eaton 
imported some into Otsego county, New York; in 1817 Mr. 
George Patterson came into possession of some Devons, 
brought over by T. W. Coke, who presented them to a 



180 DAIRYING. 

brother of George Patterson; these afterward were the 
foundation of the above-mentioned herd (George Patter- 
son of Sykesville, Md.), These and other animals im- 
ported by Mr. Patterson, our records show, were all brought 
from Devonshire, and from the best that could be found 
there. 

Others were imported into New York State; among im- 
porters whom we might mention are John CowHn of Trux- 
ton, N. J.; L. F. Allen, Miles Vernon, A. Becket, W. P. 
& C. S. Wainwright, Col. L. G. Morris, D. W. Catlin, W. 
R. Sanford, J. Howard McHenry of Pikesville, Md.; C. P. 
Halcomb of Delaware, and others. Later importations are 
by James Murray of Virginia, R. W. Cameron of New 
York, Frank Brown of Baltimore, Md., and still later John 
Hudson, Moweaqua, 111., Dr. J. Cheston Morris, Philadel- 
phia, Pa., and A. S. Worden, Ulysses, Pa. 

As to the beef qualities of the Devons one only has to 
turn to the records of the markets of the country to see 
that they are among the leading beefers, bringing the top 
prices at all times. As to milk and butter production from 
Devons, it will be found from records that they produce 
from 12 to 25 lbs. of butter per week. Mr. A. E. Baker, of 
Wisconsin, says his cows average him 365 lbs. of butter 
per cow for the year, which is about as much as any breed 
will do on farmers' feed and care. Dr. J, Cheston Morris 
says, in regard to Devons for milk: " A herd of Devons may 
be relied upon to give an annual yield of 2000 quarts of 
milk from each cow; the length of the period averages be- 
tween 10 and II months, though single cows will continue 
in profit from 13 to 14 months. An average yield of seven 
quarts daily from each cow may therefore be expected, 
and an examination of milk records of Devon herds will 
show that they are remarkably uniform in their yields. 
As comparatively little attention has been paid to their 
milking qualities, a large improvement may be looked for 
by proper selection and breeding. As my animals weigh 
only 700 lbs. each, it follows that each cow has given be- 
tween five and six times her own weight in milk during 
the course of the year, besides maintaining her own 



DAIRY COWS. 181 

weight, and producing healthy offspring. This I consider 
a physiological fact well worthy of notice, and very 
creditable to the ' little red cow,' Of course the same 
nutritive power applied in other directions would give 
beef-producing results, such as we all know of." 

Devon cattle are active and very hardy, qualities that 
make them especially valuable in dry or mountainous re- 
gions. The bulls are quite intelligent and active, and are 
not as liable to be cross as some other breeds; they weigh 
from 1800 to 2000 lbs. at three to four years old. The cows 
have strong vital organs, and large digestive and assimi- 
lathig powers. Their udders are not large for the amount 
of milk they give, with good elastic teats, seldom sore. 
The milk is of good quality, either as food for infants and 
invalids, for the manufacture of butter or cheese, or for 
market delivery; it does not churn in the cans, nor look 
blue in the bottle. 

Devons will pay their way at the dairy as well as in the 
feeder's stable; they will keep in good condition, and look 
plump and sleek on pasture that other breeds can hardly 
live on; they are easy keepers, good producers of the finest 
kind of milk, and also make the very best quality of beef. 

VIII. Dutch Belted Cattle. 

By H. B, Richards, Easton, Penna., Secretary Dutch Belted Cattle Asso- 
ciation of America. 

Dutch belted cattle are natives of Holland, and originated 
in that country during the seventeenth century, when the 
cattle interests of Holland were in the most thrifty condi- 
tion; in fact, it was the chief industry of the country. At 
that time breeding had been developed to a science, and 
cattle of remarkable contrast of color were bred whose 
foundation color was black, with a broad white band 
around the centre of the body, a white head, a black ring 
around each eye, and a full white tail. Wonderful and 
remarkable as it may appear, a feat was accomplished 
during that period that would defy our modern breeders 
and can be safely classified as a lost art. 

Dutch belted cattle became a classified breed and were 



182 DAIRYING. 

bred to a remarkably high standard. For several centuries 
they were owned and controlled by the nobility keeping 
them pure and limiting their number to their ownership. 
They were first imported into this country about the mid- 
dle of the present century, the importers procuring the 
finest herds in Holland; the herds in the United States 
to-day are purely of American breeding. 

The American Association have adopted as their standard 
of color a pure black, with a continuous white belt around 
their body, beginning behind the shoulders and extending 
nearly to the hips; this sharp contrast of colors makes a 
beautiful and imposing contrast and a most beautiful 
sight; when seen in number grazing on the green, they are 
admired by all, even if not interested in cattle or farm- 
ing. This belt is almost invariably reproduced, and is 
so perfectly fixed that it will crop out in their grades for 
many generations, even against cold strains of blood; the 
potency of this feature is very striking, as the belt is often 
reproduced after the foundation color is lost; and grades 
of any foundation color can be produced to an unlimited 
extent. 

Their form is a strong characterized dairy type, medium 
size, and possessing all the qualifications of an ideal dairy 
animal. They are strictly a dairy breed, and are large and 
persistent milkers; strong constitutions, peaceable and 
quiet dispositions of a very compact form. Cows range 
from eight to twelve hundred, and bulls reach eighteen 
to twenty hundred. The late P. T. Barnum, the showman 
of national fame, said: "They struck my fancy in Holland 
about 1850; I imported a few, and then found their unique 
and novel appearance not their only quality, for they 
proved to be wonderful milkers, far superior to any other 
cattle to which my attention has been drawn." 

Nearly all the herds now in the United States are owned 
in New York, Pennsylvania, and Massachusetts, with a 
few scattering South and West. A herd of eighteen were 
exhibited at the World's Columbian Exposition at Chicago, 
where they attracted great attention and were admired by 
chousands who had never heard of such novel ana beautiful 



DAIRY COWS. 183 

cattle before. This herd was sold and exported to a wealthy 
resident of the City of Mexico, where they are now kept 
and are doing well in that congenial climate. There is an 
association of breeders of these cattle known as the Dutch 
Belted Cattle Association of America, who have adopted a 
high standard of excellence, requiring breeders to breed 
typical animals of correct markings, thereby gaining 
uniformity and correctness of type. The association issues 
a herd-book, j of which vol. 4, of recent issue, is the last 
number. 

IX. Brown-Swiss Cattle. 

By N, S. Fish, Groton, Conn., Secretary Brown-Swiss Cattle Breeders' 

Association. 

Brown-Swiss cattle were first imported into this coun- 
try by Mr. Henry M. Clarke of Belmont, Mas^., in 1869. 
He imported seven cows and one bull; since then there 
have been several importations. Most of the animals 
have come from the famed Canton of Schwyz, and the 
adjacent Cantons of Zug, Uri, and Unterwalden. The Rigi 
mountains, covered to their tops with fine, rich herbage, lie 
here, and some of the finest breeds of cattle in the whole 
country are here produced, the cattle grazing in the valley 
in winter and on the mountains in summer. 

The United States consul at Zurich in 1882 made a report 
to our government of the cattle and dairy interest of 
Switzerland. He writes: "For a hundred years Switzer- 
land has been famous for the production of its dairies. At 
the cattle show of Paris, 1878, every Swiss cow exhibited 
bore away a prize in competition with exhibits from Hol- 
land, England, Denmark, and other famous cattle countries. 

The Brown-Swiss cattle are fed on grass or hay only 
the year through. A fair average for cows in Canton 
Zurich is ten quarts of milk per day the milking-year 
through; in Schwyz and Zug the average is but little 
less." 

The consul of St. Gall says: "When a farmer in Ger- 
many, Italy, or France wishes to improve his breed, he 



184 I>ATRYING. 

makes a selection from Swiss herds as the healthiest and 
hardiest known to the herd-book. . . . Tne Brown- 
Swiss is considered the dairy breed par excellence of Swit- 
zerland; it not only gives more milk, but this is richer 
than any other European breed of cattle." 

Marked Characteristics. — Size large; form firm; color 
shades from dark to light chestnut brown. The tuft of 
hair between the horns, on the inside of ear, and a narrow 
line along the back generally light. Horns rather short, 
waxey, with black tips. Nose black, with mealy-colored 
band surrounding nose. Switch, hoofs, and tongue black, 
atr'aight hind legs, wide thighs, and heavy quarters. The 
cows often weigh 1600 lbs., bulls 2000 lbs. Calves large, 
gome: weighing no lbs. when dropped. They mature fast, 
nave healthy constitutions, yielding generous returns for 
whatever caie, time, labor, or money is expended on them. 

A cow sttown at the Fat Stock Show in November, i8qi, 
gave in three days 245 lbs. of milk, showing 9.32 lbs. of 
6utter-fat by the Betbcock test, yielding during one day of the 
test 3i lbs. of tat, the largest amount of butter-fat ever 
shown at an official test 0/ any cow of any breed up to that 
time. The cow Muotta <:alved about November i, 1893, and 
in February, 1894, gave 67 Ids. of milk in one day. 

The milk of Brown-Swiss cows has a sweet flavor which 
is very noticeable, and makes it very desirable for family 
use. With good farm care the cows give unoer favorable 
circumstances from 20 to 25 quarts of milk per day. They 
make the finest of beef and veal; when intenaed to be 
used for working oxen, they are easily broken and are fast 
walkers. 

The cows are persistent milkers, with good teats; where 
used to produce grade animals they give the best of sat- 
isfaction, with the Swiss characteristics predominating. 
There are now about 1800 recorded animals in this country, 
located in almost every State, and some in Mexico. 



DAIRY COWS. 185 

YIELD OF MILK AND FAT FRO»I DAIRY COWS. 

A good dairy cow should give at least 5000 pounds ot 
milk during a whole period of lactation. As the quality 01 
milk given by different cows varies greatly, however, as 
will be apparent from the tables given in the following, the 
yield of fat produced during a lactation period is a better 
standard to go by than that of the milk; three-fourths of a 
pound of tat per day for an average of 300 days may be con- 
sidered a good yield (total 225 pounds). Many dairy farmers 
aim to have all mature cows in their herds produce a pound 
of fat, on the average, for every day in the year. To do 
this, a cow whose milk tests about 4 per cent, must give 25 
pounds of milk a day (3 gallons) as an average for the 
whole year; a cow producing 3 per cent milk must give ^Si 
pounds of milk daily, and one producing 5 per cent milk 
must yield 20 pounds of milk daily, on the average, etc. 

The flow of milk is usually at its highest shortly after 
calving, and then gradually decreases, the rate of decrease 
being determined by the inbred milking qualities of the 
cow and the system of feeding practised. The average de- 
crease in milk yield for good dairy cows on good feed is 
from one half to three fourths of a pound per head per ten 
days. Where cows are not fed liberally and receive but lit- 
tle concentrated feed, the decrease will be more marked, 
and often exceed one pound of milk per head per ten days. 
The decrease is more marked during the latter stages of 
the period of lactation than in the earlier ones, and is also 
more marked in cows with poorly developed milking qual- 
ities than in good dairy cows. A cow is considered at her 
best when from five to seven years old; the constitutional 
strength of the animal, the system of feeding practised, 
and the general treatment given the cow will determine 
her period of usefulness. 

The quality of the milk produced by individual cows 
generally remains fairly uniform through the greater por- 
tion of the lactation period, and is not permanently influ- 
enced in any marked manner by feed or any external 
conditions. During the last couple of months, when the 



186 



DAIRYINa. 



yield of milk is decreasing more rapidly than before, the 
quality is generally improved to some extent, the variation 
being, as a rule, within i per cent. Variations of several 
per cents of fat may sometimes occur from day to day, or 
milking to milking, in the milk from single cows; variations 
amounting to i per cent are common. Herd milk varies 
much less, the percentages of fat on subsequent days being 
as a rule within two tenths of one per cent, and only excep- 
tionally near one per cent. 

RESULTS OF TESTS OF DAIRY BREEDS 

Conducted by American Agricultural 
Experiment Stations. 



Breed. 






New York 

(Geneva): 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Short Horn 

Devon 

American Hol- 

derness 

Ma ink: 

Jersey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

New Jersey: 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire 

Short Horn. .. 



^^ ^ o 



Average 

Yields per 

Lactation 

Period. 



Milk. 



lbs. 

5045 
5385 
7918 
6824 
6055 
3984 

5721 

5460 
8369 
6612 



3 I 7695 

4 7446 

3 8455 

4 I 7461 
3 I 10457 



Fat. 



lbs. 

282.1 
285 5 

266. T 
244.8 
269.0 
183.3 

213. I 

297. 
285 






Average Co.st of 



Food Produc- Produc- 
Eaten ing tcx) ing 1 lb. 
per Day. jibs. Milk.i Kat. 



5.60 
5 30 
3-36 
3.60 
4.44 
4.60 

3-73 

5-5° 
3-47 



233-0 3-67 



376.3 
379 -o 
300.2 
275-3 
396.3 



4-»9 
5.09 

3 55 
3-69 
3-79 



cents 

12.4 
12.5 
13-9 
13-5 
12.7 
10.3 

12.2 

16.2 
19.5 
17. 1 

16.1 
14.9 

19-3 
15.0 

15-4 



cents 

90 

86 

65 
74 
78 
94 

76 



83.1 
94-9 

87.1 
78.1 

79-3 
76.0 
79.2 



cents 

16. 1 
16.1 
19. 1 
20.2 
17.2 
20.5 

20.1 

20.4 

24-3 
26.8 

17.9 

153 
22.4 
20.6 
20.6 



Averages /or all Breeds a?id Lactation Periods. 



Jersey 

Guernsey 

Holstein 

Ayrshire — 

Short Horn 

Devon 

American Hoi 
derness , 

Total ., 



9 


18 


5579 


301. 1 


5-40 


8 


10 


6210 


322 9 


5.20 


9 


10 


8215 


282.0 


3 43 


10 


20 


6909 


248.5 


3.60 


4 


5 


8696 


345-4 


3-97 


3 


5 


3984 


183.3 


4.60 


2 


4 


5721 


213.1 


3-73 


45 

1 


72 









13-9 
13-5 

17.2 
14-5 
14-3 
10.3 

II. 2 



94-7 
82.8 

74-7 
78.5 
78.7 
94 -o 

76.0 



17.4 
15-8 
21.5 

21-5 

19.4 
20.5 



DATRY COWS. 187 

The animals included in the foregoing breed tests rank 
on the average as follows: 

1. As to yield of fat: Shorthorn, Guernsey, Jersey, Hol- 
stein, Ayrshire, American Holderness, Devon. 

2. As to cost of producing i lb. of fat: Guernsey, Jersey, 
Shorthorn, American, Holderness, Devon, Holstein and 
Ayrshire. 

3. As to yield of milk: Shorthorn, Holstein, Ayrshire, 
Guernsey, American Holderness, Jersey, Devon. 

4. As to cost of producing lOO lbs. of milk: Holstein, 
American Holderness, Ayrshire, Shorthorn, Guernsey, 
Devon, Jersey. 

5. As to cost of food: Devon, American Holderness, 
Guernsey, Jersey, Shorthorn, Ayrshire, Holstein. 

6. As to richness of milk: Jersey, Guernsey, Devon, Short- 
horn, American Holderness, Ayrshire, Holstein. 

RESULTS OF BREED TESTS CONDUCTED AT 

WORLD'S COLUMBIAN EXPOSITION, 1893. 

A. Breed Tesi No. I (Cheese Test), May 10 to 25. 
Milk Fat Price of 

Pro- Pro- Cheese, Cheese Cost 
duced, duced, 'bs. per lb., * of Net 

lbs. lbs. cents. Feed. Gain. 

25Jerseys 13,296.4 60191 1451.8 13.36 $98.14 $119.82 

25 Guernseys 10,938.6 488.42 1130.6 11.95 76.25 88.30 

25Short-horns 12,186.9 436.60 1077.6 13.00 99-36 81.36 

B. Breed Test No. 2 (Ninety-day Butter Test), June i to Aug. 29. 

Butter Price of 
credited Butter. 

25 Jerseys.. 73)488.8 3516.08 4274.01 $1747.37 $587.50 $1323.81 

25 Guernseys 61,781.7 2784.56 3360.43 1355-44 484-14 997-64 

24 Short-horns 66,263.2 2409.97 2890.87 1171.77 501.79 910.12 

Averages per day per cow. 

Fat, Cost of 

per cent. Food. 

Jerseys 32.7 1.56 4.78 26.1 cts. 

Guernseys 27.5 1.24 4.51 21.5 " 

Short-horns 30.7 1.12 3.64 23.2 " 

C. Breed.Test No. 3 (Thirty-day Butter Test), Aug. 29 to Sept. 28. 

Butter Price of 

credited Butter. 

15 Jerseys 13,921.9 685.81 837.21 $385.59 $111.24 $274-13 

15 Guernseys 13,518.4 597.96 724.17 329.77 92.77 237.00 

15 Short-horns 15,618.3 555.43 662.67 303.69 104.55 198.89 

D. Breed Test No. 4 (Heifer Test), Sept 30 to Oct. 20, 

7 Jerseys 3356.6 155.38 194.23 $77-69 $34-44 $56.28 

6 Short-horns 2581.0 97.89 122.36 48.95 23.53 47-42 



.88 



DAIRYING. 



AVERAGE YIELDS OF MILK AND FAT BY PRE- 
MIUM COWS AT RECENT STATE FAIRS. 



State. 



Name of Cow. 



New York. 

Maine. 
Mass. 
Ohio. 

Indiana. 
Illinois. 



Wisconsin. 

Iowa. 
Nebraska. 
California. 

Canada. 

Toronto. 

Guelph. 

Gananoque 



Intze Von Hol- 
lingen 

Weston Lily 

Very Much 

Lady of Lyons 6th 

Nahe 2d 

Cows over 3 yrs. 

old. 
Beulah Shawlan. .. 
Cows tinder ^ yrs. 

old. 

Kitty King 

Johanna 5th 

Daisy — 

Eurodna .... 

Geertje Lefing 

Lady Woods 

Typha 

Eunice Clay 

Calamity Jane 

Carmen Sylva. . . . 



Bleed. 



Holstein 

Jersey 

Guernsey 

Jersey 

Holstein 



Jersey 



Holstein 
Jersey 

Holstein 
Jersey 
Holstein 



Milk. Fat. 



lbs. I 

58.55 
48.68 

43-50 
44-75 
72.86 
47.00 



lbs. 
1. 691 
2.190 
2. 150 
2.060 
2. no 

1.553 



37-43 1-585 



29.60' 

83-95 
40.15 
40.12 

50-31 
38.58 

49-73 

, I 
65.00 

69.18 

69.00, 



1.485 
2.500 
2.420 

1-597 
1. 510 
2.626 
1-544 

1-590 
2.090 
1. 914 



Fat. 



p.c. 

2.89 
4-50 
4-94 
4.62 
2.90 
3-30 



4-33 



Test made at 



Fair grounds. 
Home. 

Fair grounds. 



5-02 
2.98jHorae. 

5-95! " 

4. 07! Fair grounds. 

:; . 00 

6.74 



2-45 
3 ,6 
2.80 



HIGHEST RECORD FOR YIELD OF FAT 

During Twenty-four Hours Made by any Co^v in a 
Public Test at a Fair. 

Brienz, Brown-Swiss, 11 years old, weighing 1395 lbs. 

Average daily yield of milk 81.7 lbs. 

" " fat 3. II " 

" per cent of fat in day's milk. . .. 3.81 " 



(American Dairy Show, Chicago, 1891; 3-day test.) 



DAIRY COWS. 



189 



OFFICIAL MILK AND BUTTER RECORDS. 



A. Milk Records. 
I. Hoist ein-Friesi an : 

Pietertje 2d. 3273 H. H. B 

Rosa Boiiheur 5th, 11227 H. F H. B. .. 

Shadeland Boon 2d, 8892 H.H. B 

II. Guernsey: 

Lily of Alexander, No. 1059 

III. Ayrshire : 

Rena Myrtle, 9530 

B. Butter Records. 
I. Holstein-Frjesiiin : 

Pauline Paul, 852 A. R., 2199 H. H. B... 
(i lb, butter from 16. t8 lbs. milk.) 

Natsey, 646 A. R., 2265 H. H. B 

(i lb. butter from 15.87 lbs. milk.) 
Elgin Belle, 840 A. R., 4640 H. H. B ... 
(i lb. butter from 17.46 and 17.78 lbs. milk.) 
Jersey : 

Signal's Lily Flagg, No. 31035 

Princess 2d, No. 8046 

Guernsey : 

Bretonne, No. 3660 

Gully 5th, No. 1590 

Lucille, No. 115 

Ayrsh ire : 

Rena Myrtle, 9530 

Duchess of Smithfield. 4256 



n. 



Ill 



IV 



365 
Days. 



lbs. 



30,311 



12,855}^ 



12,172 



i,i53b5 



1-04754 



75: 



546 



7 
Days. 



lbs. 



726^ 



24 
Hours. 



lbs. 



122}^^ 



34tb 



46iSt 



24 IB 



4% 



iQtb 



sA 



* From 11,339 lbs. of milk. 



t From 299}^ lbs. of milk. 



RESULTS OF ENGLISH 3IILKING TRIALS. 

(Averages of breed-tests conducted at the annual dairy shows of the Brit- 
ish Dairy Farmers' Assoc, 1879-95, inclusive.) 



o< 



174 

207 

70 

ID 
21 



19 



39 
.S56 



Breed. 



Shorthorns.. 

Jerseys 

Guernseys . 
Holsteins (Dutch) 

.Ayrshires 

Devons 

Red Polls , 

Welsh . .. 

Aberdeen Angus 
Kerries and De.x- 

ter Kerries 
Crosses ..... 



Aver- 
age 
Yield of 


Total Solids. 


Fat. 


Solids 
not 










Milk 


Yield 


Per 


Yield 


Per 


Fat, 
Per 


per 
Day. 


per 
Day. 


Cent. 


per 
Day. 


Cent. 


Cent. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




lbs. 






44.58 


5.64 


12.66 


1.63 


3-65 


9.01 


27.99 


4.06 


14 51 


^ 37 


4.90 


9.61 


28.78 


4.04 


14.04 


I 37 


4-77 


9-27 


45-19 


5-53 


12.25 


1-54 


3-41 


8.84 


37-73 


5-34 


13-52 


1.68 


4-25 


9-27 


30.12 


4.32 


14-34 


1.48 


4.90 


9-44 


38.84 


4.91 


12.64 


1-49 


3-84 


8.80 


46.00 


5.86 


12.74 


1. 91 


4.16 


8.58 


60.30 


8.29 


13-74 


3.01 


4-99 


8-75 


26.59 


3-56 


13-37 


I. II 


4.18 


9.19 


41-59 


5-72 


13-77 


1.66 


4.0 


9-77 



Live 
Weight. 



lbs. 

1406 (55)* 

846 (92) 

1037 (21) 

1383 ( 3) 
1077 (10) 

1 123 (16) 



749 ( 9) 
1250 (13) 



* Average for 55 animals. 



190 



DAIRYIN^G. 



ENGLISH STANDARDS FOR ANNUAL. YIELD OF 
MILK OF THE VARIOUS BREEDS. 

The standards proposed for the respective breeds by the 
British Dairy Farmers' Association for entry in the " Dairy 
Cattle Register" are as under: 



Weight of Milk in 
the Milking Period 
(not exceeding n 
Pedigree and Non-Pedigree. months). 

lbs. 

Short-horn 8500 

Jersey 6000 

Guernsey 6000 

Ayrshire 7500 

Red Polled.. 7000 

Kerry and Dexter Kerry.. 4500 

Dutch (Holstein) 8500 



Pure Butter Fat per 

Day (average of two 

tests as determined 

by analysis), 

lbs. 

1.25 
1.25 
1.25 
1. 00 
1. 00 

0.75 
I. GO 



The standard for crosses of either of the above will be 
the mean of the standards for the pure breeds. No animal 
is admitted whose milk contains less than 12 per cent of 
solids at any test. (McConnell.) 

AVERAGE YIELDS AND COMPOSITION OF MILK 
OF DIFFERENT BREEDS. (Hucho.) 



Breed. 



Short-horn... 
Brown Swiss 

Holstein 

Guernsey .. 

Ayshire 

Jersey 

Angler 

Kerry 



Live 

Wt., 
Lbs. 



1300 

1300 

1 100 

1050 

1000 

900 

900 

550 



Annual 

Yield. 



Milk, 
lbs. 



6800 
7300 
7700 
6600 
6600 
6600 
6600 
5000 



Fat, 
lbs. 



260 

275 
230 

330 
245 
300 
240 
190 



Average Per Cent. 



Solids. 



12.9 
13.0 
II 8 
14.7 
12.5 
14.7 
12.0 
12.5 



Fat. 



3-S 
3-8 
30 
5-0 
3 7 
5-0 
3-4 
3-8 



Solids 
not 
Fat. 



Per 1000 lbs. 
Live Wt. 



Milk, 
lbs. 



5200 
5600 
7000 
6300 
6600 
6700 
7300 
9000 



Fat, 
lbs. 



200 

2IO 
210 
310 

24s 
330 
270 

350 



DAIRY COWS. 



191 



AVERAGE PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF MILK 
FROM DIFFERENT BREEDS. (Konig.) 



Name of Breed. 



Steyer (Austrian) 

Simmenthal (Swiss) . . . . 
Tillerthal (Tyrolean).., 
Vorarlberg (Austrian). 
Algau (Bavarian) . . . 

Bohemian 

Holstein . ., 

Oldenburg (German), . 

Angler (Danish) 

Short-horn 

Devon , 

Ayrshire 

Jersey.. 

Guernsey 

French 

Scandinavian 



<n 








TD 


c 








4J 




11 

DX5 






^ c 




4_> 




:= 3 


2^ 


12 


^ 




6< 


i^ 


< 


86.90 


4.17 


3 24 


4 96 


73 


6 


87 26 


3-79 


2 


64 


5.81 


70 


22 


a7-43 


3 70 


3 


07 


5.10 


70 


iQ 


87 


3» 


3-54 


2 


91 


5-40 


77 


4 


87 


88 


3.20 


3 


22 


5-13 


57 


2 


86 


00 


5 06 


3 


67 


4 63 


64 


24 


88 


04 


3-25 


3 


99 


4.16 


56 


18 


«7 


95 


3.3« 


3 


10 


4.81 


76 


10 


88 


IS 


3.12 










67 


87 


20 


3-47 


3 


21 


5-43 


69 


20 


86 


.57 


4-44 






.... 


64 


43 


86 


93 


3-58 


3 


42 


5 43 


64 


31 


«5 


90 


4-32 


3 


34 


5-70 


74 


26 


as 


39 


5" 


3 


98 


4.38 I 


I4(?) 


12 


a? 


20 


3-90 


3 


07 


5.06 


77 


4 


88 


00 


3-5^ 


2 


76 


4-97 


76 






13. 10 
12.74 

12.57 
12.62 
12. 12 
14.00 
11.96 
12.05 
11.85 
12.80 
13 43 
1307 
14. 10 
14.61 
12.80 
12.00 



CO 



METHODS OF JUDGING THE VALUE OF DAIRY 

COWS. 

The British Dairy Farmers^ Association, which has con- 
ducted tests of dairy cows at their annual fair for the last 
fifteen years, has scored the dairy cows competing for pre- 
miums according to the following scale during late years : 

I point for each pound of milk; 
20 points for each pound of fat; 
4 points for each pound of solids not fat. 
I point for each ten days in milk after the first twenty 
days (limit 200 days). 
10 points are deducted from the total score for each 
per cent, of fat below three per cent in the milk. 

The cows entered in the test are separated into four 
classes, according to the breed, each class being divided 
into two divisions, cows and heifers. The classes are 
Shorthorns, Jerseys, Guernseys, and cross-breeds. 

Other associations abroad or in this country have not 
generally followed any definite plan from year to year in 
awarding premiums to dairy cows at fairs, the awards having 



192 DAIRYING. 

been given to cows producing most milk, or : ichest milk, 
or most butter-fat, or most solids, during the test, which 
may have lasted one to three days. At the Vermont State 
Fair, iSSg, the following points were given : For each 20 
days since calving, i point ; for each 10 days of gestation, 
I point ; for each 2 oz. of total solids in 24 hours' milk, i 
point ; for each oz. of butter-fat in 24 hours' milk, 2 points; 
for each 2 oz. of salted butter from 24 hours' milk, i point. 
In the milking trials conducted by the Royal Agricultural 
Society of England, the size of the cows has been con- 
sidered, the cows being, as a rule, separated into two 
classes, viz., over and under i k o lbs. live weight. 

From the best information at hand at the present, the 
system ( f awards adopted by the British Dairy Farmers" 
Association, and given above, must be considered the most 
perfect and the most just to all concerned. Its main short- 
comings lie, as it would seem, in its not considering the 
food eaten by each animal during the test, and in the fact 
that the test is made at the fair, and not at home under 
every-day conditions and in surroundings familiar to the 
animals. The former objection would be removed by tak- 
ing into account the dry matter in the food eaten, as shown 
by chemical analysis. 

BUYING AND SELLING COWS BY TESTS OF THEIR 

3IILK. (E.MERY.) 

The money value of a cow may be estimated by multi- 
plying the number of gallons of milk which the cow gives 
by 12, adding to or subtracting from this product one dollar 
for every one fourth per cent of fat in the milk above or 
below 3.5 per cent. 

,, , pounds of milk per day , , 

Value = — X 12 -|-4 (per cent fat — 3.5). 

of 

(See Bull. No. 113, N. C. Exp. Station.) 



MILK. 



193 



II. MILK. 

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF VARIOUS KINDS 
OF MILK. (KoNiG.) 



Human 

Mare 

Buffalo 

Ass 

Cow 

Ewe 

Goat 

Reindeer* 

Sow 

Bitch 

Elephant 

Hippopotamus. . 

Camel 

Llama 



No. of 






Casein 


Milk . 
Sugar. ^ 




Analy- 
ses. 


Water. 


Fat. 


and Al- 
bumen. 


.sh. 


107 


87.41 


3.78 


2.29 


6.21 


31 


50 


90.78 


I. 21 


1.99 


5 


67 


35 


8 


82.25 


7.51 


5.05 


4 


44 


75 


7 


89.64 


1.64 


2.22 


5 


99 


51 


793 


87.17 


3-09 


3.55 


4 


88 


71 


32 


80.82 


6.86 


6.52 


4 


91 


89 


38 


85.71 


4.78 


4.29 


4 


46 


76 


2 


67.20 


17.10 


"•39 


2 


82 I 


49 


8 


84.04 


4-55 


7.23 


3 


13 ^ 


OS 


28 


7.S.44 


9 57 


II. 17 


3 


09 


73 


3 


79.30 


9.10 


2.51 


8 


59 


50 


I 


90.43 


4.51 




4 


40 


II 


3 


86.57 


3-07 


4.00 


5 


59 


77 


3 


86.55 


3.15 


3.90 


5 


60 


80 



Specific 
Grav- 
ity. 



1.0270 

1.0347 
1.0330 

1.0345 
I. 03 I 6 
I. 0341 
1.0328 
1.0477 
1.038 
1-035 
1-0313 

1.042 
1.034 



* Werenskiold 

AVERAGE ANALYSES OF A3IERICAN SAMPLES 
OF DAIRY PRODUCTS. (Gokssmakn.) 





Whole 
Milk. 


Skim- 
milk. 


Butter- 
milk. 


Cream 

from 

Cooley 

Creamer. 


Butter. 


No. of samples 


1889 


348 


31 


197 


25 


Water 


86.53 
4.14 
3.20 

5.43* 
.70 

100.00 


90.52 

.32 

3-53 

4-83 

.80 


91.67 

.27 

2.79 

4-47* 
.80 


73-90 

17.66 



.62 


10.89 

83.95^ 
.42"' 


Fat 


Casein and albumen.. 
Milk-sugar 


Ash 


4-74 




1. 0.00 


100.00 




100.00 


Total solids 


13-47 
9-33 


9.48 
9.16 


8.33 
8.06 


26.10 
8.44 


89.11 
5.16 


Solids not fat 



* By difference. 



194 



DAIRYING. 



AVERAGE COMPOSITION OF COAVS' MILK, WITH 
VARIATIONS. (KoNiG.) 





Average of 
793 Analyses 
(largely Euro- 
pean). 

87.17 percent. 
3.69 " " 

3;°^ [3.55 per ct. 

4.88 per cent. 
.71 " *' 


Minimum. 


Maximum. 


Water 

Fat 

Casein 

Albumen 

Milk-sugar 


80.32 per cent. 
t.67 " " 
^[2^ j-207Perct. 
2.11 per cent. 
•35 " " 


90.69 per cent. 
6.47 " " 
6-9 ^6.40 per ct. 

6 . 12 per cent. 
1. 21 " " 


Ash 






Total solids 

Solids not fat 


100.00 

12.83 percent. 
9.14 " " 
1. 0316" " 


9.3« 


19.68 


Specific gravity 


1.0264 


1.0970 



COMPOSITION OF MORNING AND EVENING MILK, 
AND OF MORNING, NOON, AND EVENING MILK. 

(KoNIG ) 



Morning- milk. 
Evening " 

Morning milk. 
Noon " 

Evening " 



No. 
of An- 
alyses. 


Water. 


Fat. 


^57 
157 

28 
28 
2 


Per ct. 

86.70 
86.47 

88.08 
87.44 
87.49 


Per ct 

3-32 
3-56 

3.06 

3-87 
3.62 



Casein 

and 

Albumen 



Per ct. 

3-63 
3-65 

3-24 
3.26 

3-19 



Milk- 


Ash. 


sugar. 




Per ct. 


P'rct. 


5-64 


71 


5.60 


.72 


4.88 


•74 


4.68 


■75 


4.99 


•71 



Total 
Solids. 



Per ct: 

13-30 
13 53 

11.92 
12 56 
12.51 



COMPOSITION OF DIFFERENT PARTS OF THE 
SAME MILKINGS. (Konig.) 



First portion . 
Second " 
Third " 



No. 






of An- 


Water. 


Fat. 


alyses. 








Per ct. 


Per ct. 


7 


89.84 


1.78 


7 


88.12 


3-34 


6 


86.29 


452 



Casein 

and 

Albumen, 



Per ct. 



•94 
•59 



Milk- 


Ash. 


sugar, 




Per ct. 


P'rct. 


4.81 


. .69 


4.92 


.68 


5.88 


.72 



Total 
Solids. 



Per ct. 
10.16 
11.88 
13-71 



MILK. 



195 



CAIjCULATION of COI^rPONENTS OF COWS' 

MILK. 

According to Vieth the components of milk solids will 
stand in the ratio to one another of about 

lo : 13 : 2 

for casein and albumen : milk sugar : ash. 

If the solids not fat in a sample of milk are 9 per cent, 
the per cent of casein and albumen in the same will be 
approximately ^^5 X 10 = 3.60 per cent ; sugar, ^5X13 = 4-68 
per'cent; and ash, /^ X 2 = .72 per cent. 

TABLE SHOAVING RELATION OF FAT TO CASEIN 
AND OTHER SOLIDS. (Cooke.) 



Total Solids. 



Fat. 



Casein and Milk-sug^ 
Albumen. and Ash. 



11.00 3 

11.50 3 

12.00 , . . . 3 

12.50 3 

13-00 3 

13-50 4 

14.00 4 

14.50 4 

15.00... 5 

15.50 5 

16.00 6 



07 
29 

50 
75 
99 
34 
68 

93 
38 
69 
00 



2.92 
3.00 

3-07 
3.19 
3.30 
3-44 
3-57 

3.79 
4.00 

4-15 
4.30 



5.01 
5.21 
5.43 

5.56 
5-71 
5.72 

5-75 
5.68 
5.62 
5.66 
5.70 



This table, which is summarized from the analyses of 
about 2400 American samples of milk, shows that while the 
percentage of fat varies from 3.07 to 6 per cent, or nearly 
three per cent, that of casein varies only from 2.92 to 4.30 
per cent, less than one and one half per cent. It also 
shows that a higher percentage of fat is always accom- 
panied by a higher percentage of casein. Milk sugar and 
ash increase but little as the milk grows richer. 



196 



DAIRYING. 



FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS IN DAIRY PROD- 

UCTS. 

Average of American Analyses. (Cooke and Hills. i 





Nitrogen. 


Phosphoric 
Acid. 


Potash. 


Value per 
Ton. 


Whole milk 

Skim-milk 

Cream 

Buttermilk 

Whey 


•53^ 
•56 
.40 
.48 

• 15 
. 12 

3-93 


.19^ 
.20 

•15 

•17 
•14 
.04 
.60 


•175^ 

.185 

.130 

.158 

.181 

.036 

.120 


$ 2.17 

2.31 

.66 

1.98 

.84 

.4.Q 


Butter 


Cheese 


14.19 





COMPOSITION OF COLOSTRUM. (Konig.) 



• 


No. of 
Anal- 
yses. 

II 

I 

I 

42 


Water. 

77-9 
64. 1 
70.1 
74.6 


Casein. 


Albu- 
men. 


Butter- 
fat. 


Milk- 
sugar. 

4.6 

3-9 
2.7 


Ash. 


Ewe 


4.9 

5-2 

7.6 
4.0 


3-4 

3-2 

8.0 
13-6 


8.3 

24-5 

9-5 

3-6 


•9 
30 

•9 
1.6 


Goat 

Sow 


Cow 







COMPOSITION OF ASH OF COAVS' MILK AND 
COLOSTRUM. 

Cows' Milk. 

Total ash 7 per cent 

100 parts of ash will contain : 

Potash 24 

Soda 6 

Lime 23 " 35 

Phosphoric acid 28 " 41 

Chlorin 13 " 13 



Colostrum. 
1.6 per cent 



MILK. 197 

A CHAPTER ON 3IILiK TESTING. 

The Babcock milk test is the quick and simple method 
of determining the fat content of milk which has been 
most generally adopted in this country. The test was in- 
vented by Dr. S. M. Babcock, of Wisconsin Agricultural 
Experiment Station, and was first published in July, i8go. 
The following is an outline of the method: 

A known quantity of milk (17.6 cubic centimeters, or 
about f of an ounce) is pipetted off into a graduated test- 
bottle; 17.5 CO. of commercial sulfuric acid, of a specific 
gravity of 1.82 to 1.83, is then measured out by means of 
a graduated cylinder or an automatic pipette, and added to 
the milk. The two fluids are mixed, and when the curd is 
dissolved, the test-bottles are placed in a centrifugal ma- 
chine and whirled for 5 minutes at a rate of 800-1200 revo- 
lutions per minute, the small hand-machines on the market 
requiring the higher number of revolutions. Boiling hot 
water is then filled into the bottles, by which means the 
liquid fat is brought into the narrow graduated neck of the 
bottles ; after an additional whirling of the bottles for a 
minute, the length of the column of fat is read off in per 
cent. 

The whole process of testing a sample of milk according 
to this method will take less than a quarter of an hour 
when a little skill in manipulation has been reached. 

The various dealers in dairy implements have placed 
Babcock machines on the market in sizes fiom 4- to 60- 
bottle machines, and supply the necessary outfit, as test- 
bottles, pipettes, graduates, and sulfuric acid. There are 
at present three different types of machines — hand-machines 
(friction or cog-wheel machines; the latter ones are to be 
preferred, but are also somewhat more expensive), steam 
turbine, and belt-power machines. In Sharpies' Russian 
Babcock Tester (a steam turbine test) the bottles used can 
be filled while the machine is in motion; the results are, how- 
ever, apt to come somewhat too low; the test bottles used 



198 DAIRYIKG. 

are arranged for half the usual quantity of milk. The 
" No - Tin " test manufactured by the same firm is 
one of the best hand-machines on the market. Steam 
turbine machines are to be recommended for factory use; 
they should always be provided with a speed indicator so 
as to avoid too slow or too rapid whirling; accidents have 
happened in several cases where the bottles were unable to 
stand the pressure caused by too rapid whirling. 

Points to be watched in making tests by the Babcock 
method : 

The strength of the acid used is very important; its 
specific gravity should not go below 1.82 or above 1.84 ; if 
the acid is somewhat too strong less may be taken, and a 
little more if it is rather weak. It is, however, not possible 
to make a satisfactory test with acid of a specific gravity 
below 1.82. Keep the acid bottle corked when not in use, 
as the acid will otherwise take up moisture from the air. 

In testing separator skim-milk use a somewhat larger 
quantity of acid than usual, and whirl 5 to 6 minutes; this 
will insure a perfect separation of all the fat present in 
such milks. The two-necked so-called Ohlsson bottles are 
recomrnended for testing separator skim-milk. 

The centrifugal machines should run at a rate of about 
800 to 1000 revolutions per minute; if its diameter is small, 
whirl 1000 or 1200. 

Soft or rain-water is used in filling up the bottle after 
boiling, or hard water may be used if some drops of sulfuric 
acid have been added to it before the boiling. 

In adding the acid the bottle should be held at an angle, 
so as to cause the acid to follow the inside of the wall. Mix 
the milk and acid at once, or within a short time, and pro- 
ceed with the test without delay. 

Read off results before the fat begins to crystallize. If 
many tests are made at a time, and the room is cold, place 
the bottles in a pail with hot water and keep them warm 
until results are recorded. 



MILK. 199 

Application of Babcock's Test. — The method may be used 
to advantage in determining the fat content of full milk, 
skim-milk, buttermilk, whey, cream, condensed milk, and 
cheese. It cannot be recommended for the estimation of 
fat in butter, since the error of analysis in this case is too 
large. In testing separator skim-milk, buttermilk, and whey 
by this method, no reading should be taken lower than one- 
tenth of one per cent. If only a small drop or two of liquid 
fat appears in the neck of the bottles after finished whirling, 
the result is therefore to be put down as .i per cent, instead 
oir estimates of .05, and still lower, which are sometimes 
made. (See Bull. No. 52, Wis. Experiment Station.) 

Lactometer. — The Quevenne lactometer, with the ther- 
mometer tube extending into the narrow stem of the instru- 
ment, is recommended for dairy work. In the N. Y. Board 
of Health lactometer, often used, the scale is divided into 
120 divisions, the mark 100 corresponding to a specific 
gravity of 1.029, a-^^d that of 120 to a specific gravity of 
1.0348. These lactometer degrees can be converted into 
Quevenne lactometer degrees by multiplying by .29. The 
following table gives the readings of the two scales be- 
tween 60 and 120 on the Board of Health lactometer: 



200 



DAIRYING. 



TABLE SHOAVING THE QUEVENNE LACTOMETER 
DEGREES CORRESPONDING TO THE SCALE OF 
LACTOMETERS GRADUATED FROM O TO 120. 



N. Y. Bd. 

of Health 

Scale. 


Quevenne 
Scale. 


N. Y. Bd. 

of Health 

Scale. 

81 


Quevenne 
Scale. 


N. Y. Bd. 

of Health 

Scale. 


Quevenne 
Scale. 


60 


17.4 


23-5 


lOI 


29-3 


61 


17.7 


82 


23.8 


102 


29.6 


62 

63 
64 
65 


18 

18.3 
18.6 
18.8 


83 
84 
85 

86 


24.1 
24.4 
24.6 
24.9 


103 
104 

105 
106 


29.9 
30.2 
30.5 
30-7 


66 
67 
68 


19. 1 
19.4 
19.7 


87 
88 
89 


25.2 

25-5 
25.8 


107 
108 
109 


31 

31-3 

31.6 


69 


20 


90 


26. 1 


no 


31-9 


70 


29.3 


91 


26.4 


III 


32.2 


71 


20.6 


92 


26.7 


112 


32.5 


72 


20.9 


93 


27 


"3 


32.8 


73 


21 .2 


94 


27-3 


114 


33-1 


74 
75 


21-5 

21.7 


95 
96 


27.6 
27.8 


"--5 
116 


33-4 
33.6 


76 

77 
78 


22 

22.3 

22.6 


97 
98 

99 


28.1 
28.4 
28.7 


117 
118 

119 


33-9 
34-2 
34-5 


79 

80 


22.9 
23.2 


100 


29 


120 


34.8 



In taking the specific gravity of milk by means of a lac- 
tometer, the temperature of the milk should not vary more 
than 10° either way from 60" F. The following tables 
show the proper corrections for temperature to be made, if 
the milk was either warmer or colder than 60' F., the tem- 
perature to which the specific gravities of all liquids are 
usually referred. 

In practical work sufficiently accurate corrections for tem- 
perature may generally be made by adding .1 to the lacto- 
meter reading for each degree above 60" F. , and by subtract- 
ing .1 for each degree below 60''; e.g., if the reading at 64° 
is 29.5, it will be about 29.5 -|- .4 = 29.9 at 60^; if 34.0 at 52°, 
it will be about 34.0 — .8 = 33.2 at 6o^ By reference to the 
following table we find it is more correctly 33.0. 



MILK. 



201 



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202 



DAIRYING. 



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MILK. 203 

CALiCULiATION OF TOTAL. SOLIDS OF MILK. 

The relation existing between the various components of 
the milk is such as to make possible the calculation of the 
percentage of solids not fat, and total solids, in a sample of 
milk when the fat-content and the specific gravity (lactom- 
eter reading) of the milk are known. Several formulas 
have been worked out by chemists in different parts of the 
world, by the application of which the total solids may be 
calculated from the percentage of fat and the specific grav- 
ity of the milk. We give here Babcock's formula, pub- 
lished in the twelfth report of Wisconsin Experiment 
Station. 

Solids not fat = I — Joo-^ ~ ^J A ^ (joo - /) 2.5, 

\ioo — 1.0753J/ / ^ J J o, 

where s= specific gravity of the milk and /"per cent of fat 

found. When s and /are known the per cent of solids not 

fat in the milk may be calculated by means of this formula. 

In order to avoid making the lengthy calculations in every 

case, tables for solids not fat are given on the following 

pages; results obtained by the formula given above, or 

by means of the following tables, will come within a couple 

of tenths from the actual percentages present, when 

reasonable care is taken in the determinations of fat and 

specific gravity (or lactometer reading). 

Short formulas. The following formulas for solids not 

fat and for total solids are derived from the data given in 

the following tables, L = lactometer reading at 60° F. 

(specific gravity X 1000— 1000); /= per cent of fat in 

milk. 

Solids not fat = — \- .2/ 
4 

Total solids = \- 1.2/. 

4 



204 DAIRYING. 

Rule : To find per cent of solids not fat, add two tenths of 
the per cent of fat to one fourth of the lacto77ieter reading. 

To find per cent of total solids, add one and ttvo tenths times 
the per cent of fat to one fourth of the lactometer reading. 

Results obtained by using the short formulas will agree 
very closely with those derived from the general formula, 
or from the tables published below, and may be safely 
relied upon in practical work. 

The tables cover a range of .o to 6.0 per cent of fat, 
and from 26 to 36 lactometer reading. If intermediate 
values for f and L are at hand, corrections in the percent 
of solids not fat found may easily be made, with .02 per 
cent for every tenth of one per cent of fat, and .25 per 
cent for every lactometer degree. Example : Given / = 
3.67 per cent and L = 32.5. By referring to the table we 
find that y=3.6 and Z = 32 will give 8.73 per cent of 
solids not fat; correction for fat-content, .01 per cent (3.67 
being nearer 3.65 than 3.70), and for lactometer reading, 
12 per cent; corrected per cent solids not fat, 8.86. 



MILK. 



205 



TABLE SHOWING PER CENT OF SOLIDS NOT FAT, 

Corresponding to Quevenne Lactometer Readings and 
Per Cent of Fat. (Babcock.) 



Per 






Lactometer Readings at 60° Fahr. 






Per 


Ct.of 
Fat. 






















Ct.of 
Fat. 




" 






















26 


27 


28 


29 


30 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 


36 




.0 


6.50 


6.75 


7.00 


7-25 


750 


7-75 


8.00 


8.25 


8.50 


8.7s 


9.00 


.0 


.1 


6.52 


6.77 


7.02 


7.27 


7-52 


7-77 


8.02 


8.27 


8.52 


8.77 


9.02 


.1 


.2 


6.54 


6.79 


7.04 


7.29 


7-54 


7-79 


8.04 


8.29 


8.54 


8.79 


9.04 


.2 


•3 


6 56 


6.81 


7.06 


7-31 


7-56 


7.81 


8.06 


8.31 


8.56 


8 81 


9.06 


•3 


•4 


6.58 


6.83 


7.08 


7-33 


7-58 


7.83 


8.08 


8.33 


8.58 


8.83 


9.08 


•4 


•.6 


6.60 


6.85 


7.10 


7-35 


7.60 


7-85 


8.10 


8 35 


8.60 


8.85 


9.10 


.5 


.6 


6.62 


6.87 


7.12 


7-37 


7.62 


7.87 


8.12 


8.37 


8.62 


8.87 


9.12 


.6 


•7 


6.64 


6.89 


7-14 


7-39 


7.64 


7.89 


8.14 


8.39 


8.64 


8.89 


9.14 


•7 


.8 


6.66 


6 91 


7.16 


7.41 


7.66 


7.91 


8.16 


8.41 


8.66 


8.91 


9.16 


.8 


•9 


6.68 


6-93 


7.18 


7-43 


7.68 


7-93 


8.18 


8.43 


8.68 


8.93 


9.18 


•9 


I.O 


6.70 


6.95 


7.20 


7-45 


7.70 


7-95 


8.20 


8.45 


8.70 


8.95 


9.20 


1.0 


I . I 


6.72 


6.97 


7.22 


7-47 


7.72 


7-97 


8.22 


8.47 


8.72 


8.97 


9.22 


I.I 


1.2 


6.74 


6.99 


7.24 


7-49 


7-74 


7-99 


8.24 


8.49 


8.74 


8.99 


9.24 


1.2 


1-3 


6.76 


7.01 


7.26 


7-51 


7.76 


8.01 


8.26 


8.51 


8.76 


9.01 


9.26 


1-3 


1-4 


6.78 


7-03 


7.28 


7-53 


7.78 


8.03 


8.28 


8.53 


8.78 


9.0J 


9. 28 


1.4 


i-S 


6.80 


7 05 


730 


7-55 


7.80 


8.05 


8.30 


8.55 


8.80 


905 


930 


1-5 


1.6 


6.82 


7.07 


7-32 


7-57 


7.82 


8 07 


8.32 


8.57 


8.82 


9.07 


932 


1.6 


1-7 


6.84 


7.09 


7 34 


7-59 


7.84 


8.09 


8.34 


8.59 


8.84 


9.09 


9-34 


1-7 


1.8 


6.86 


7. II 


7-36 


7.61 


7.86 


8. II 


8.36 


8.61 


8.86 


9. II 


9-37 


1.8 


1.9 


6.88 


7-13 


7.38 


7-63 


7.88 


8.13 


8.38 


8.63 


8.88 


9 14 


9-39 


1.9 


2.0 


6.90 


7-15 


7.40 


7-65 


7.90 


8.15 


8.40 


8.66 


8.91 


9 16 


9.41 


2.0 


2.1 


6.92 


7.17 


7.42 


7.67 


7.92 


8.17 


8.42 


8.68 


8. 03 


9.18 


9-43 


2.1 


2.2 


6.94 


7.19 


7-44 


7.69 


7-94 


8.19 


8.44 


8.70 


8.95 


9.20 


9-45 


2.2 


2-3 


6.96 


7. 21 


7.46 


7.71 


7.96 


8.21 


8.46 


8.72 


8.97 


9.22 


9-47 


2.3 


2.4 


6.98 


7-23 


7.48 


7-73 


7 98 


8.23 


8.48 


8.74 


8.99 


9.24 


9.49 


2 4 


2-5 


7.00 


7-25 


7-50 


7-75 


8.00 


8.2s 


8.50 


8.76 


9.01 


9 26 


951 


2.5 


2.6 


7.02 


7.27 


7-52 


7 77 


8.02 


8.27 


8.52 


8.78 


9-03 


9.28 


9 53 


2.6 


2.7 


7.04 


7.29 


7-54 


7-79 


8.04 


8.29 


8.54 


8.80 


9 05 


9 30 


9-55 


2.7 


2.8 


7.06 


7-31 


7.56 


7.8t 


8.06 


8.31 


8.57 


8.82 


9.07 


9 32 


9-57 


2.8 


2.9 


7.08 


7-33 


7.58 


7 83 


8.08 


8.33 


8.59 


8.84 


9.09 


9-34 


9-59 


2.9 


3-0 


7.10 


7-35 


7.60 


7.85 


8.10 


8.36 


8.61 


8.86 


9. II 


9 3^ 


0.61 


3-0 


31 


7.12 


7-37 


7.62 


7.87 


8.13 


8.38 


8.63 


8.88 


9 13 


9-38 


9.64 


3-1 


3-2 


7-14 


7-39 


7.64 


7.89 


8.15 


8.40 


8.65 


8.90 


9.15 


9 41 


9.66 


3-2 


3-3 


7.16 


7.41 


7.66 


7.92 


8.17 


8.42 


8.67 


8.92 


9.18 


9-43 


9.68 


3-3 


3-4 


7.18 


7-43 


7.69 


7-94 


8.19 


8.44 


8.69 


8.94 


9.20 


9-45 


9.70 


3-4 


3-5 


7.20 


7-45 


7.71 


7.96 


8.21 


8.46 


8.71 


8.96 


9.22 


9-47 


9-7^ 


3-5 


3-6 


7.22 


7.48 


7-73 


7.98 


8.23 


8.48 


8.73 


8.98 


9.24 


9.49 


9-74 


3-6 


3-7 


7.24 


7-50 


7-75 


8.00 


8.25 


8 50 


8.75 


9.00 


9.26 


9 51 


9.76 


3-7 


3-8 


7.26 


752 


7-77 


8.02 


8.27 


8.52 


8.77 


9.02 


g.28 


9-53 


9.78 


3-8 


3-9 


7.28 


7-54 


7-79 


8.04 


8.29 


8.54 


8.79 


9.04 


9-3° 


9-55 


9.80 


3-9 


4.0 


7-30 


7-56 


7.81 


8.06 


8.31 


8.56 


8.81 


9.06 


9-32 


9-57 


9-83 


4.0 


4.1 


7-32 


7-58 


783 


8.08 


8.33 


8.58 


8.83 


9.09 


9-34 


9-59 


9.85 


4.1 


4.2 


7-34 


7.60 


7-85 


8.10 


8.35 


8 60 


8.85 


9. II 


9-36 


9.62 


9.87 


4.2 


4-3 


7-36 


7.62 


7.87 


8.12 


8.37 


8.62 


8.88 


9-13 


9-38 


9.64 


9.89 


4-3 


4-4 


7.38 


7 64 


7 80 


8.14 


8-39 


8.64 


8.90 


915 


9.40 


9.66 


9.91 


4.4 



206 



DAIRYING. 



TABLE VOR SOLIDS NOT FAT— iConiin?ted). 



Per 


Lactometer Readings at 60° Fahr. 


Per 


Ct.of 
























Ct. of 


Fat. 


26 


27 


28 


29 

8.16 


30 


31 


32 


33 

9.17 


34 
9.42 


35 
9-68 


36 

9-93 


Fat. 


4-5 


7.40 


7.66 


7. 91 


8.41 


8.66 


8.92 


4 5 


4.6 


7-43 


7.68 


7-93 


8.18 


8.43 


8.68 


8.94 


9.19 


9.44 


9.70 


9-95 


4.6 


4-7 


7-45 


7.70 


7-95 


8.20 


8.45 


8.70 


8.9b 


9.21 


9.46 


9.72 


9-97 


4-7 


4.8 


7-47 


7.72 


7-97 


8.22 


8.47 


8.72 


8.98 


923 


9.48 


9-74 


9.99 


4.8 


4.9 


7'49 


7-74 


7 99 


8.24 


8.49 


8.74 


9.00 


9-25 


9 50 


9.76 


10.01 


4-9 


5-0 


7.51 


7.76 


8.01 


8.26 


8.51 


8.76 


9.02 


9.27 


9-52 


9.78 


10.03 


5-0 


5-1 


7-53 


7.78 


8.03 


8.28 


8.53 


8.79 


9- 05 


9.29 


9-54 


9.80 


10.05 


5-1 


5-2 


7-55 


7.80 


8.05 


8.30 


8.55 


8.81 


9.06 


9-31 


9-56 


9.82 


10.07 


5.2 


5-3 


7-.=;7 


7 82 


8.07 


,S.^2 


8.57 


8.83 


9.08 


9-33 


9 -.58 


9.84 


10.09 


5-3 


5-4 


7-59 


7.84 


8. 09 


8.34 


8.60 


8.85 


9.10 


9-36 


9.61 


9.86 


ro.ii 


5-4 


5-5 


7.61 


7.86 


8. II 


8.36 


8.62 


8.87 


9.12 


9.38 


9-63 


9.88 


10. 13 


5-5 


5-6 


7-63 


7.88 


8.13 


8.39 


8.64 


8.89 


9-15 


9.40 


9.6s 


9.90 


10.15 


5.6 


5-7 


7-65 


7.90 


8.15 


8.41 


8.66 


8.91 


9.17 


9.42 


9.67 


9.92 


10.17 


S-7 


5.8 


7.67 


7.92 


8.17 


8.43 


8.68 


8.94 


9.19 


9.44 


Q.69 


9.94 


10.19 


5.8 


5-9 


7.69 


7-94 


8.20 


8.45 


8.70 


8.96 


9.21 


9.46 


9.71 


9.96 


10.22 


S-9 


6.0 


7.71 


7.96 


8.22 


8.47 


8.72 


8.98 


9-23 


9.48 


9-73 


9.98 


10.24 


6.0 



MILK STANDARDS IN DIFFERENT STATES, 
CITIES, AND COUNTRIES. 



Maine . . 

New Hampshire 

Vermont 

in May and June 

Massachusetts 

in May and June. 

skimmed milk 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania* 

Ohio 

Michigan* 

Wisconsin 

Minnesotat 

Iowa 

Oregon:}: 

City of Chicago 

" " St. Louis 

u .. a » j,ream 

" " Omaha 

" " " cream 

" " Denver 

England 

Switzerland 



Solids. 



per ct. 
12.0 
13.0 

12-5 

12.0 
13.0 
12.0 



12.0 
12.0 
12.5 
12.5 
12.5 



13.0 



12.5 
12.0 
12 .0 
22.0 
12.0 



12.0 

["•5] 



Fat. 



per ct. 
3-0 



[3-25] 
3-0 
[3.7] 



3-0 

30 
30 
30 
3 o 
3-5 
30 
3-2 
3-0 
2.8 

12.0 
3-0 

16.0 



2-5 

30 



Solids 
Not 
Fat. 



per ct. 
[9.0] 



9-25 
[9.0] 
9-3 



[9.0] 

Ig'-sV 
[9.5] 

L9.5] 
[9.5]' 



[9.3] 
[9.0] 
[9.2] 
[10.0] 
[9.0] 



9.0 
[9.0] 



Law or 

Ordi- 
nance of 



893.255 

883 

888,108 

886,318 

885.252 

893-338 

882,82 

885,106 

889,86 

889.219 

889,425 

889.247 

892,50 

893 
892 

887 

893 
893 



* Specific gravity, 1.029-1.033 at 60° 
solids. t Butter, 14 per cent water. 



+ Cheese, 40 per cent fat in 



MILK. 207 

ADULTERATION OF MILK. 

The legal standards adopted in the different States of the 
Union determine the limits for fat or solids, below which 
the milk offered for sale must not fall. Where no control 
sample can be taken of a suspected sample of milk, calcula- 
tions of the extent of the adulteration practised are made 
on basis of the legal standard in each State. Whenever 
possible, a control sample should be secured on the prem- 
ises of the suspected party, and subjected to analysis. If 
the control sample contains appreciably less fat or solids 
not fat than did the suspected sample, the latter was 
skimmed or watered, or both skimmed and watered. 

Skimming. — I. If a sample is skimmed, the following for- 
mula will give the number of pounds of fat abstracted from 
IOC lbs. of milk : 

Fat abstracted — x = legal standard for fat — /, . (I) 

/"being the per cent of fat in the suspected sample. 

In this and following formulas the percentages found in 
the control samples, if such are at hand, are always to be 
substituted for the legal standards. 

II. The following formula will give the per cent of fat 
abstracted, calculated on the total quantity of fat originally 
found in the milk: 

^ = loo — ^ -— — - (II) 

leg. stand, for fat 

Watering. — I. If a sample is watered, the calculations 
are most conveniently based on the percentage of solids 
not fat in the milk: 

Per cent extraneous water in milk 

-y X lOO .,.., 

= .;c = lOO — :; 7—7 rr^ 7—, • (111) 

leg. stand, for solids not fat 

J being the per cent of solids not fat in the suspected 
sample. 

Example. — A sample contains 8.5 per cent of solids not 
fat ; if the legal standard for solids not fat be g per cent, 

8.5 X 100 ^ -n • , r 

TOO — — = 5.6, will give the per cent of extraneous 

9 
water in the suspected sample of milk. 



208 DAIRYING. 

II. Watering of milk may also be expressed in per cent 
of water added to the original milk, by formula IV : 



Per cent water added to original milk 

lOO X leg. stand, for solids not fat 



- lOO. (IV) 



loo X 9 
In the example given above, — lOO = 5.9 per cent 

of water was added to the original milk. 

Watering and Skimming. — If a sample has been both 
watered and skimmed, the extent of watering is ascertained 
by means of formula III ; and the fat abstracted found ac- 
cording to the following formula : 

Per cent fat abstracted 

, , , leg. stand, for solids not fat , ,,^, 
= ^ = leg.stand.forfat X/. (V) 

Example. — A sample of milk contains 2.4 per cent of fat 
and 8.1 per cent solids not fat; then 

8.1 X 100 

extraneous water in milk = 100 = 10 per cent; 

9 

9 X 2.4 
fat abstracted = 3 5 = -33 per cent. 

o. I 

100 lbs. of the milk contained 10 lbs. of extraneous water 
and .33 lb. of fat had been skimmed from it. 



MILK. 



209 



TABLE FOR CONVERTING QUARTS OF MILK 
INTO POUNDS. 



Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 

85 


Lbs. 


I 


2.15 


29 


62.3 


57 


122.4 


182.5 


2 


4.3 


30 


64.4 


58 


124-5 


86 


184.6 


3 


6.4 


31 


66.5 


59 


126.6 


87 


186.8 


4 


8.6 


32 


68.7 


60 


128.8 


88 


188 9 


5 


10.7 


33 


70.8 


61 


130.9 


89 


191 


6 


12.9 


34 


73 -o 


62 


I33-I 


90 


193.2 


7 


150 


35 


75-1 


63 


135-2 


91 


195-3 


8 


17.2 


36 


77-3 


64 


137-4 


92 


197-5 


9 


19-3 


37 


79-4 


65 


139-5 


93 


190.6 


lO 


21.5 


38 


81.6 


66 


141. 7 


94 


201 8 


T r 


23.6 


39 


83-7 


67 


143 8 


95 


203.9 


12 


25.8 


40 


85-9 


68 


146. 


06 


206.1 


'3 


27.9 


41 


88.0 


69 


148.1 


97 


2.08 . 2 


14 


30.1 


42 


90.2 


70 


1503 


98 


210. 4 


•15 


32.2 


43 


92 -3 


71 


152.4 


99 


212.5 


16 


34-3 


44 


94-5 


72 


154.6 


too 


214.7 


17 


36.5 


45 


96.6 


73 


156-7 


200 


420.3 


18 


38.6 


46 


98.7 


74 


158.8 


300 


644 


19 


40.8 


47 


100.9 


75 


161 .0 


400 


858 6 


20 


42.9 


48 


103.0 


76 


163.1 


500 


1073-3 


21 


45-1 


49 


105.2 


77 


165-3 


600 


1288 


22 


47.2 


50 


107-3 


78 


167.4 


700 


1502.6 


23 


49.4 


51 


109.5 


79 


169.6 


800 


1717-3 


24 


51-5 


52 


III. 6 


80 


171.7 


900 


1931 9 


25 


53-7 


53 


113. 8 


81 


173-9 


1000 


2146.6 


26 


55-8 


54 


"5-9 


82 


176.0 






27 


58.0 


55 


118. 1 


83 


178.2 






28 


60.1 


56 


120.2 


84 


180.3 







TABLE FOR CONVERTING POUNDS OF MILK 
INTO QUARTS. 



Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts. 


Lbs. 

57 


Qts. 


Lbs. 


Qts 


I 


-47 


29 


13-5 


26.6 


85 


39-6 


2 


•93 


30 


14.0 


58 


27.0 


86 


40.1 


3 
4 


1 .40 
1.86 


31 
32 


14.4 
14.9 


59 
60 


27-5 
28.0 


87 
88 


40.5 
41.0 


5 
6 

7 

8 


2-33 

2 80 
3.26 

3 73 


33 
34 
35 
36 


15-4 
15-8 
16.3 
i6.8 


61 
62 

63 
64 


28.4 
28.9 
29.4 
29.8 


89 
90 

91 

92 


41-5 
41.9 
42 4 
42.9 


9 
10 


4. ly 
4 66 


37 
38 


17.2 
17 7 


65 
66 


30-3 
30.8 


93 
94 


43-3 
43-8 


n 
12 


5-13 

5 59 


39 

40 


18.2 
18.6 


67 
68 


31.2 
31-7 


95 
96 


44-3 
44-7 


13 
14 


6 06 
6.52 


41 

42 


19.1 
19.6 


69 
70 


32.2 

32.6 


97 
98 


45-2 
45-7 


'5 
16 


6 qq 
7-46 


43 
44 


20.0 
20.5 


71 

72 


331 
33-6 


99 
100 


46.1 
46.6 


17 


7.92 


45 


21 .0 


73 


34-0 


200 


93-2 


18 


8-39 


4& 


21.4 


74 


34-5 


300 


139-8 


19 


8 85 


47 


21.9 


75 


35-0 


400 


186.4 


20 


0. ^2 


48 


22 4 


76 


35 4 


500 


233 


21 


9-79 


49 


22.8 


77 


35-9 


600 


279.6 


22 
23 


10.3 
10.7 


50 
51 


23-3 
23.8 


78. 
79 


36.3 
36.8 


700 
800 


326 . 2 
372.8 


24 


112 


52 


24.2 


80 


37-3 


900 


419.4 


25 
26 
27 
28 


11 7 
12. 1 

12.6 

13.1 


53 
54 
55 
56 


24,7 
25.2 
25.6 
26. 1 


8i 
82 
83 
84 


37-7 
38.2 

38.7 
39-1 


1000 


466.0 



210 



DAIRY li^G. 



III. CREAM. 



PERCENTAGE C03IP0SITI0N OF CREAM. (Konig.) 





Mean of 43 
Analyses. 


Minimum. 


Maximum. 


Water 


68.82 

22.66 

3.76 

423 

■53 


22.83 

15.19 

•63 

•59 

.11 


83 23 

29.93 

7.88 

5-52 
2.50 


Fat 

Casein, Albumen, etc 


Milk Sugar 


Ash 






100.00 





PERCENTAGE C03IP0SITI0N OF DAIRY 
PRODUCTS. (Konig.) 



Skim - milk, grav- 
ity creaming . . . 

Centrifugal skim- 
milk 

Buttermilk 

Whey 

Preserved milk 

Condensed milk, 
(no sugar added) 

Condensed milk, 
(sugar added). . 

Scherff's condens- 
ed milk .. 

Koumiss (from 
mares' milk) . . . 

Koumiss (from 
cows' milk). .. 

Kephir 



No. of 
Analy- 
ses. 


u 




Casein 
and Al- 
bumen. 




J3 
en 

< 


56 


90-43 


.87 


3.26 


4-74 


•70 


7 


90.60 


•31 


3.06 


5-29 


•74 


11 


90.12 

93-38 


1.09 

•32 


4 03 
.86 


4.04 
4-79 


-72 

•65 


4 


87.97 


3.21 


3-34 


4-74 


•74 


36 


58-99 


12.42 


11.92 


14.49 


2.18 


64 


25.61 


10.35 


11.79 


50.06* 


a. 19 


5 


72.87 


6.62 


8.20 


10.63 


1.68 


43 


90.44 


1.46 


2.24 


1.77 


-42 


11 


89.20 


1.83 


2.66 


4.09 


•43 


22 


91 .21 


1.44 


3-49 


2.41 


.68 



Specific 
Gravity. 



1-0357 

1.0350 
1.0348 
1.0272 
1.0313 



Lactic Alco- 
acid. hoi. 
.91 1.91 



■55 
1 .02 



1. 14 

•75 



* 13.84 per cent milk-sugar, 36.22 per cent cane-sugar. 



CREAM. 



211 





a 

5 

"o 

c 

u 
o 
t-l 
V 

a, 


S 


Number of Pounds of Cream from looo lbs. of Milk. 


m tv ov P) 

■.^ 1j- 1^ LO iri 


rf m t>> Ov o 

m m m mvo 


« ■* m t^ Ov 

VO vo VO vo 'O 


O N -^t-m tN 
tx t^ t^ t>. t^ 


o> 




00 
in 


1^00 (N -^ 
■^ ■* lO lO lO 


VO t^ 0\ M N 

m m mvo vo 


■^vo CO Ov M 
VO VO VO VO C* 


m Tfvo 00 
t^ t^ t^ t^oo 


00 




IT) 


00 N "*-vO 

Ti- in IT) "■< lo 


00 Ov HI m m 
m mvo VO VO 


VO 00 O N i1- 
VO VO tv t^ t^ 


moo Ov M m 
r^ t^ t^oo 00 


00 


> 




O « -*vO 00 

in m IT) m in 


HI m in t^ 

VO VO vO VO VO 


Ov HI m •<^vo 
VO t^ r^ f~ t>. 


CO Pi "^VO 
tvOO 00 00 00 




Ov 


• 


IT) 


f) -^vo 00 
m m in ino 


N -^VO 00 O 
VO VO VO VO t^ 


N m m t~~ Ov 
t^ t^ t^ t^ p^ 


M m m t-^ Ov 

00 00 00 » CO 



ov 


C/J 


O 


•*VO 00 (N 

»n in in\o vo 


•*vo 00 N 

VO VO vo t^ r^ 


i*-vO 00 N 
t^ t~> C-iOC CO 


m tx Ov ►- m 

CO 00 00 Ov OV 


m 

Ov 


00 


t^ Ov M m m 
in invo VO VO 


t^ o^ HI m m 

vO vO t^ t~. t>. 


00 Pi ij-vo 
t^OO 00 00 00 


OO o Pi ro t^ 

00 Ov Ov Ov Ov 


Ov 
OV 


M 




Ov « <^vo 00 

mvo VO VO VO 


P) ■* t^ Ov 
tv f. t^ t^ t^ 


M m moo 

00 00 00 00 Ov 


Pi •'t-vo 00 HI 

Ov 0> Ov o< 

HI 


m 


HI 


-* 

■^ 


N -^vo Ov ►- 
VO VO VO VO C^ 


m moo O N 

C^ t~s t^OO CO 


m t^ Ov p) -^ 

00 00 00 Ov ov 


VO 00 HI m m 

Ov ov C 


00 

o 

HI 


^ 

^ 




in i^ O N ■<1- 
VO VO t^ t^ t^ 


t~ Ov ►i T*-VO 
C^ t^OO 00 00 


ov HI -^VO 00 
00 ov Ov Ov Ov 


w m moo 
HI 


m 

M 







00 >- fOvO OO 
VO t^ t-s t^ t^ 


HI mvo 00 o 

00 00 00 00 Oi 


mvo 00 HI m 
Ov Ov ov o 


VO OO HI mvo 

" HI HI 
M M HI HI Ht^ 


Ov 

HI 

M 


00 


N ■* t^ Ov N 

t^ t^ t-* t^oo 


moo O mvo 

00 00 OvOv Ov 


00 M mvo 00 
Ov O o 

M HI HI H 


M -^ t^ Ov PJ 

HI HI M M N 


Pi 

HI 







VO 00 >-< -^ t>. 
t^ C^OO 00 00 


m moo HI 
ov Ov ov Ov 

M 


n-vo o^ Pi m 

iH w 


00 M mvo Ov 

M P) N M Pi 


Pi 

m 

M 




fovo 0^ N 
00 00 00 00 On 


moo M -^ t^ 
Ov o> O O 

H M M 


rnvO Ov Pi 

M M M H. Pi 


mco M -<fvo 
Pi PI m m ro 

M HI M M »H 


Ov 
m 

M 






moo 0) moo 
00 00 On Ov 0> 


M 11- 1^ O CO 
O HI iH 


t^ rovO Ov 

HI Pi Pi Pi PI 
M Pi HI H. HI 


mvo Ov Pi m 
m m m •* 1^ 

HI HI HI M M 


00 

ii- 

M 







HI 'TOO ■-■ ■* 

o^ as a\ 


00 HI 11-00 HI 

O HI HI « N 


moo - moo 
Pi PI m r"-. m 


HI moo HI m 
-i- ii- ii- m m 


00 
m 

Ht 





00 


00 " moo N 
ON w 


VO Ov mvo 

HI M o (N m 

HI N HI M HI 


m m 1;^ ij- -4- 


w m Ov mvo 
in in mvo vo 

M M H HI M 




H« 


VO 


m OS rn t-. M 
HI w w 


moo N vo 
N N m m 1*- 


iTOO Pi m Ov 

■^ -^ m in m 


m t-^ HI m Ov 
vo VO t^ t^ t^ 


m 

00 










■+ 
N 


M HI w f) m 


m Ov moo N 
m m ■* -^ m 


VO m Ov m 
mvo vo vO c^ 


00 M VO "i- 
t^OO 00 Ov Ov 


00 
Ov 












0) 


m ov -^00 m 
o N m m 11- 

M IH H M HI 


Tj- m mvo vo 

(H ^ M M HI 


m -^ ;> 
t- f^oo 00 00 

i-l M W M M 


11-00 m p^ PI 

Ov OV HI 
HI M M PI Pi 


t1~ 

HI 

Pi 





C^ P) t-^ N 03 

m iS- I*- m m 


mco moo m 
VO \o t^ t-~oo 


00 moo m.oo 

CO Ov ov 

M M M Pi P« 


m Ov ii- Ov 1^ 
- M Pi Pi m 

pi Pi Pi P< Pi 


o> 
m 
Pi 




Q 

M 


00 


w 00 ii- Ov m 
m mvo VO r^ 

M M M M HI 


M t^ N 00 m 

00 00 ov Ov o 

HI HI HI H C4 


Ov m HI VO PI 
HI N ci m 

M N Pi PI Pi 


til m ov il- 
m ■* ii- mvo 
w p< Pi pi Pi 


vo 

vo 

Pi 


VO 


N 00 m HI 00 
t^ r^oo o- On 

H« M fH HI HI 


1*- t-^ ro Ov 

O - M N M 
N N « W <M 


VO Pi CO >n M 
m ii- 11- mvo 
pi Pi Pi Pi p) 


til 1*- O ti. m 

vo C-.00 00 o> 
PI W Pi M PI 


o- 

Ov 

Pi 




t- rl- HI 0\V0 
OV O H. - N 

HI N (N a C) 


-* M 00 VO m 

m T^ if mvo 

f) N P) 01 M 


O VO 11- N O- 

t-^ t^co ov ov 

PI M Pi Pi Pi 


vo i^- w OvvO 

O HI M CI m 

m m m ro m 


m 
1*- 

m 




" 


i 1U3D 


Ul 
J3d 


H N fn ■* 

CO CO CO O CO 


mvo t^co Ov 

CO CO CO fO CO 


O H p) m 1*- 
■«j- Ti- ii- 11- ii- 


mvo tvoo Ov 
ii- 1*- •4- ij- 1«- 


o 

w 



212 



DAIRYING. 



lilST OF HAND AND POWER CREAM SEPA- 
RATORS ON THE 31ARKET, 1896. 



Name. 



Capacity 
per Hour. 



, Hand or Dairy Separators. 
De Laval '''Baby'''' Cream 
Separators. 

" Hummingr Bird ■" 

Baby No. i ("hollow" bowl) 
" No. I (■' disc" bowl)... 

" No. 2 

" No. 3 

Dairy Turbine 

U. S. Cream Separators 
No. 3. Improved U. S. Sep. 
No. 5. 
No. 6. 

No. 7. " (Midget) 

Butter Acctnnulator. 

No. 2 B as separator 

as accumulator.. . 



4. Keystone Cream Separator. 

5. Russian Steam Separators. 

Little Giant Russian No. i. 
" " " No. 2, 

Sharpies Belt Separators. 

Safety Hand No. I 

" " No. 2 

6. Victoria Separators (three 

styles) 

The Empress Separator — 

7. Empire Separators. 

The Mikado 

The Empire "5" 

8. The Eclipse Cream Separator 

No. 0-5 (6 styles) 

9. The Kneeland Omega Hand 

Separator. 
No. I Jr.— No. 4 Jr. (5 styles) 

10. American Cream Separator 

No. 2 

No. 3 

B. Power Separators. 
I. Alpha Separators. 

Alpha No. I. Belt Power 

" No. 2. " " 

*' No. I. SteamTurbine 

" No. 2. " 
Alpha Acme Belt Power.. 

" " Steam Turbine 

Standard Belt Power . . . 

" Turbine 



lbs. 



175 
I. so 
250 
350 
675 
700 

650-700 
350-400 
250-300 
200-220 

600 
400 

400-500 



300 
600 



300 
600 



100-300 
750 



225 



80-550 



200-600 



350 

600 


100 

150 


2500 


500 


4000 


750 


2500 
4000 


52s 
800 


1300 


350 


1300 


375 


1200 


250 


1200 


275 



Retail 
Price. 



1 



65 

90 1 
125 i 
200 I 
225 J 



200 ") 

125 I 

100 f 

75 J 



I" 200 •< 



125 1 
200 I 

125 I 
200 ) 

80-125 
225 



125 I 



30-150 



75-150 



Manufacturer 
or Agency. 



The De Laval Sep- 
arator Co., N. Y. 
City. 



Vermont Farm Ma 
chine Co.. Bel- 
lows Falls, Vt. 

Swedish Cream and 
Butter Separator 
Co., N. Y. Ciiy 

Keystone Se para (or 
Co , Ltd., Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 



P. M. Sharpies, 
• West Chester, Pa. 



Dairymen's Supply 
Co., Philadelphia, 
Pa. 

D. H. Burrell & 
Co., Little Falls, 
N. Y. 

The C. L. Chap- 
man Separator 
W'ks,Little Falls, 
N. Y. 

Kneeland Crystal 
Creamery Co., 
Lansing, Mich. 

Am. Separator Co., 
Bainbridge, N. Y. 



The De Laval Sep- 
arator Co., N. Y. 
City. 



MILK. 213 

HAND AND POAVER CREAM SEPARATORS— (C^w). 



Name. 



Power Skpakatoks— {Cont'd). 

2. Russian Steavi Separators. 

The Standard Russian 

The Imperial " 

St a nda rd Belt Sepa ra tors. 

The Standard Belt 

The Imperial " ... ... 

3. U, S. Creatn Separators. 

^ The Improved No. i U. S. 
Separator.. 

The Improved No. 3 U. S. 
Separator 

No. 3 U. S. Cream Separa- 
tor (low frame) 

4. Re id Improved Danish Sep- 

a7-ator 

5. Columbia Cream Separators 

(three styles) 

6. Empire Power Separators. 

Empire 10 

Empire 25 

7. Butter Accumulator. 

No. 1 A as separator 

as accumulator. ... 
No. 2 A, B, & C as separator 
as accumu- 
lator 

No, 4 A, for cream only . . . 
No. 4B, " " " .... 

8. Keystone Cream Separators. 

No. I 

No. 2 

No. 3. 

9. Victoria Power Separator, 

Empress Povyrer 

10. The Eclipse Separator. 
No. 6-9 (four styles) 



Capacity 
per Hour. 



lbs. 

I 200- I 500 
2000—2500 

1200— 1500 
2000-2500 

• 2000-2500 

• 650-700 

• 600-700 

■ 2000-3000 

300 600 



1000 I 100 
2500 

2000 I 

1200 f 

600 \ 

400 ) 
Butter 

35-40 
20-25 

900 

1500 
2000 



1000 
3500 



800-3000 



Retail 
Price. 



»3So ] 
500 I 

350 I 
500 J 

400 1 

I 

200 \ 

200 

500 ] 

100-150 



275 
450 



1 
400 

200 1^ 



400 I 

200 J 

225 ) 

275 X 

325 ) 



Manufacturer 
or Ag^ency. 



P. M. Sharpies, 
West Chester, Pa. 



Vermont Farm Ma- 
chine Co., Bel- 
lows Falls, Vt. 

A. H. Reid, Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 

Columbia Cream 
Separator Co., 
Avon, N. Y. 

D.H.Burrell&Co., 
Little Falls, N.Y. 



Swedish Cream and 
Butter Separator 
Co., N. Y. City. 



Keystone Separator 
Co., Ltd., Phila- 
delphia, Pa. 



( Dairymen's Supply 
3'-'' \ j Co'., Philadelphia, 
5°^ I j Pa. 

( The L. S. Chapman 

225-6oo-( I Separator Works, 

( Little Falls, N.Y. 



FORMULAS FOR FINDING THE FAT CONTENT 

OF CREAM. 

Fleischniann" s formula : 

Per cent fat in cream = f.^ = ^-^ ~ f^) j^f^^ 



214 DAIRYING. 

where -A' = per cen , of cream obtained, f = per cent fat in 
milk,/i = per cent fat in skim-milk; or 

■' AR 

where F = per cent of fat in butter, B — yield of butter 

from ICG lbs. of milk, A = percentage churning. Under 

ordinary conditions of creaming these formulas may be 

simplified to 

/a = 6.67/ — 1.42, 

/a = 5.77^. 
Formula for finding the per cent cream to be separated when 
a certain fat content in the cream is it'a«/^a' (Fleischmann): 
_ ioo(/-/,) 

""" /. -/. ' 
f,fi, and /a = per cent of fat in full milk, skim-milk, and 

cream, respectively. 

HANDLING AND CARE OF CREAM SEP.\RATORS. 

By J. D. Frederiksen, Little Falls, N. Y., Manager Chr. Hansen's 
Laboratory. 

In selecting a separator, local conditions, space at dis- 
posal, nearness to its manufacturer who can put it up, 
be held responsible, and quickly attend to repairs, etc., 
may be of importance, and the following points should be 
considered: 

Thorough Separation. — All manufacturers claim that 
their machines do perfect work, but they do not always 
come up to the claims. Under normal conditions the meas- 
ure for thoroughness of separation is the contents of butter-fat 
in the skim-milk as ascertained by the Babcock test. The best 
modern separators skim practically absolutely clean, and 
there is now no excuse for anything but perfect skimming. 
With normal milk at the proper temperature run into the 
machine at the rate of the capacity claimed for it, no sepa- 
rator should leave more than o.i^t of butter-fat in the skim- 
milk, which is the smallest percentage that can be ascer- 
tained by the Babcock test with accuracy. 

The table below gives the grand averages for the per- 
centages of fat found in the trials of a number of the 
leading separators, conducted at the experiment stations 
of Delaware, Cornell (N. Y.), Vermont, Pennsylvania, and 
Wisconsin. 



CREAM. 



215 



PER CENT FAT IX CEXTRIFUGAL SKI31-MIIiK. 



Style of Separator. 



Butter Accumulator 

Columbia Cream Separator 

Reid's Impr. Danish Separator 

Danish-Weston "' 

De Laval Alpha No. I " 

• " Alpha Acme " 

" Alpha Turbine " 

" Alpha Baby No. 2 Separator. .. 
Alpha Baby No. 3 '' . . 

" Horizontal Separator 

Jumbo Separator. 

Sharpies Russian Separator . . . . 

'■ Imperial " 

U. S. Bucter Extractor Sep. No. i. 

Do. (as separator) 

U. S. Butter E.xtr. Sep. No. 2 

Do. No. 3 

U. S. Separator No. i 

Do. No. 3 

Do. No. 5 

Victoria, 30 gal. Separator 

Do. 70 gal. '' 



Averages 


of Trials at 


American Experiment 


Stat 


ons. 


Number 
of Trials. 


Per cent 

Fat in 

Skim-milk. 


II 


• 14 


19 


.12 


3 


.14 


3 


.10 


2 


.10 


21 


.09 


51 


.og 


112 


.08 


7 


.125 


9 


19 


4 


.21 


34 


•24 


30 


•34 


5 


•24 


2 


.14 


8 


•34 


10 


.21 


9 


•17 


21 


.10 


27 


•13 


25 


.22 



With the constant improvement in machines it is not 
difficult to. find separators which will do perfect work. 

Simplicity, durability and safety of construction are con- 
siderations of vital importance. The separator must be 
simple in construction so as to be easy to handle, to clean, 
and to oil. It must be durable, so that it will need but few 
repairs, and, first of all, it must be absolutely safe. Too 
many deplorable fatal accidents are already due to burst- 
ing separator bowls, and too much stress cannot be laid on 
the demand that the machine must by strongly built, of first- 
class material and workmanship, so that accidents are 
made impossible with reasonably careful handling. 

As the pressure on the circumference of the bowl increases 
with the square of the speed, it is evident that the modern 
high-speed separators are exposed to a tremendous strain 
— in fact the tensile strain in some of them is as high as 
20,000 to 30,000 lbs. to the square inch. Fortunately, the im- 
provements in bearings and other features of construction 



21G 



DAIRYING. 



which have enabled manufacturers to increase the speed, 
have caused them at the same time to reduce the diameter 
of the bowl, which makes the modern machine much safer 
than the first crude and heavy separators. 

Power. — Considering its capacity, a well-built separator 
requires comparatively little power, whether coal or 
muscle. But as either is money, it is a matter of impor- 
tance that none be wasted. Many so-called hand separa- 
tors are altogether too heavy to run by hand, hence in 
selecting one see that it is easy to keep it running for 
several hours. The tests made at the experiment stations 
by dynamometer, as well as by measuring the steam con- 
sumed, show that there is a great deal of steam wasted in 
a creamery above that actually required to drive the separa- 
tor; that " the turbines use steam extravagantly, but that 
the small engine of the creamery uses it still more extrava- 
gantly." Due allowance must therefore be made for this 
waste in comparing results obtained by various methods 
of testing. The following table gives some of the results 
published by the stations: 

Horse-power per 1000 lbs Milk. 



Style of Separator. 


Dela- 
ware. 


New 

York. 


Ver- 
mont. 


Wisconsin. 


Butter Accumulator 




2.69 
3-17 


"'^.%l' 


2-45 


Columbia Cream Separator 




Reid's Improved Danish 




152 


De Laval Standard 






" Alpha No. I 

" Alpha Acme 






0.79 


0.81 
0.98 
0.46 


Baby No. 2 

" " No. 3 


0-37 




0.26 


■r.87' 

1-37 


Jumbo 






United States No. i 








No. 3 




0.76 


0.63 
0.72 


" No. 5 




Victoria, 700 lbs 




2.78 




" -xo erals 


0.74 
0.85 




20 gals 




De Laval Alpha Turbine 

Sharpies Imperial . . 


1.47 to 1.79 
1.42 

1.75 to 2. 1 1 


" Russian 





These tests are made with single machines and do not 
guarantee that all separators of the same makes consume 



CREAM. 



217 



the same power or steam. The accumulating results of 
such trials being compiled, however, become a guide in 
estimating the value of the various machines in the 
market. As between belt and turbine (or direct steam) 
power, the former is preferable in large creameries. In 
small plants one is about as economical as the other, and 
the choice maj^ depend upon whether an engine is needed 
for churning, butter-worker, pump, and other purposes, or 
you can do without it. 

Capacity. — In selecting a separator it is best to have 
pleifty of capacity. In a large creamery it is better to 
have two separators of moderate size than one very large 
machine. Only in very large creameries may separators 
of largest capacity be preferable. The capacity should be 
such as to finish the day's work in 4 to 6 hours at the time 
when there is most milk. In the private dairy, using a 
hand separator, the work should require only one hour, 
rather less. The following would be our idea of the proper 
capacity: 



Largest Supply of Milk 
per Day, lbs. 


Number of 
Machines. 


Capacity of Each 

Machine, lbs. 

per hour. 


Power. 


15,000 or more 


j 2 or I 
1 more ) 

2 

2 

2 


2,000 to 2,500 

1,500 " 2,000 
1,200 " 1,500 

1,000 

1,200 
600 to 1,000 

600 

300 to 500 

300 
150 


\ 


Engine 




(1 




Eng-. or Turb. 


2,500 " 5,000 




Sheep, or dog. 




or turbine. 
Hand, or dog. 




or sheep. 
Hand 


Less than 100 





Condition of Cre-am. — As discharged from the separator, 
the cream should be smooth and even, free from froth and 
of perfect " churnability." 

As to cost, the best machine is ahvays the cheapest in the long 
run. Repairs, waste of fat in the skim-milk, of oil, and of 
coal, by an inferior machine, will more than make up any 
saving in first cost. 



218 DAIRYING. 

• Running the Separator. 

The Operator should understand his Business. — He should 
have thorough training in creameries as a helper and, if 
possible, in a dairy school, before undertaking to manage 
a creamery separator on his own responsibility. A new 
machine should be put up and started by the manufacturer 
or his agent, and prove in perfect shape and efficiency be- 
fore he leaves. Every manufacturer gives detailed in- 
structions as to the care of the separator, and such an 
instruction book should always be at hand. The operator 
of hand as well as of power machines should make him- 
self familiar with every detail of the construction. 

Condition and Temperature of the Milk. — Fresh and warm 
from the cozu, the milk is in the best condition to be skimmed. 
If it cannot be had in that condition, it should be aerated 
and cooled on the farm, so that it arrives at the creamery 
or the dairy at not over 60°. Then reheat it to 80° or 85°, 
not under 75° and not over 90°. This heating is prefer- 
ably done in some continuous heater, as it is dangerous to 
heat it in bulk, because milk standing some time at 85" is 
apt to spoil. While the separator will skim at a lower 
temperature, either the skimming is not clean or less milk 
must be run through the machine in the same time. Of 
course, the milk must be sweet. 

Starting. — Oil all bearings thoroughly, using only the very 
best oil. Ascertain that everything is in trim order, then 
start according to instructions, which vary for different 
kinds of machines. Always start carefully, and where the 
belt from the intermediate is shifted from loose to fixed 
pulley, do it slowly and gradually, helping with the hand 
oa the belt to start the bowl. When the bowl appears to 
be running at full speed without shaking, ascertain if it 
really does so by means of the speed indicator, which 
should always be found on any power machine. 

Never allow the machine to run faster than permitted hy 
the manufacturer. If you do, it is at your risk and at 
the risk of the lives of your assistants. Use the speed 
indicator often. 



1 

I 



CREAM. " 219 

See that the feed of new milk is correct and that the pro- 
portion of cream to milk is as wanted. Hold a quart meas- 
ure under the skim-milk spout and a measuring glass un- 
der the cream outlet, and, when the quart measure is full, 
see how much cream you have in the measuring glass, tak- 
ing the time by your watch. If you have 6 ozs. of cream 
to I quart of skim-milk in 9 seconds, you have taken 6 
parts of cream from 38 of new milk, or a little less than 
one sixth, or about 16^, and you are running at the rate 
of 950 lbs. per hour. How large a proportion of cream to 
take from the milk depends upon the richness of the milk 
and the consistency of cream desired. If you have 4^ 
milk and you wish cream of 28$^ fat, you will take i 
part of cream from 7 of new milk, or 14^ . 

Keep the oil-cups filled d^n^ look frequently at all working 
parts of the machinery. Well started and regulated, it 
will run uninterrupted until all the milk is skimmed. 
When the last milk has entered the bowl, pour in suffi- 
cient skim-milk to crowd out all the cream left. If the 
skim-milk is removed from the building while the separa- 
tor is running, take samples frequently^ or, if it is all left 
after the work is done, take a few average samples to test 
2uith the Babcock machine, so as to control the day^ s work. 

Stop the juachine cantiojisly, removing the motive power 
and letting the bowl come to a stand-still of itself without 
applying any brake. Remove the skim-milk left in the bowl 
by a siphon or otherwise, take off the covers, etc., and lift 
out the bowl. 

Cleaning. — First rinse the bowl and other parts which 
have been in contact with milk in cold or tepid water, and 
then scrub them in boiling water, frequently using some 
solution of sal-soda. Scrub and brush every corner. Rinse 
in clean boiling water and steam out the tin covers, etc. 
Wipe with a cloth and set the things to dry. Pump out 
every pipe that cannot be reached by hand and brush. If 
possible, avoid the use of rubber hose to conduct the milk 
from the vat or heater to the separator, but use open tin 
conductors or short tin pipes, which can be easily kept 
clean. Rubber hose cannot be washed in boiling water 



220 



DAIRYING. 



or soda, and is a source of contamination. Clean the 
separator stand carefully with a cloth and wipe the spindles, 
etc. Occasionally clean out the oil-chambers with kerosene 
oil, and always see to it that no gum is formed and that 
the oil-grooves and tubes are open. 

If the separator shakes, or in any way works imper- 
fectly, find the cause without delay and remedy it. If you 
fail to find the fault, or you cannot remedy it yourself, 
notify the manufacturer or his agent, and have him attend 
to it at once. 

Treatment of the Cream. — As the cream leaves the separa- 
tor, it should at once be cooled to 50° or lower. This in- 
sures " body " in the butter, and should not be neglected, 
at least not unless the cream is thoroughly chilled after it 
is ripened, before churning. 

liOSS OF BUTTER CAUSED BY INEFFICIENT 
SKIMMING. 

If three-tenths of one per cent of fat is left in the skim- 
milk, instead of two-tenths, in a separator creamery receiv- 
ing 1000 lbs. of milk a day, there will be a loss of about 340 
lbs. of butter for the whole year, on the supposition that 
1000 lbs. of milk yield 800 lbs. of skim-milk, and i lb. of 
butter contains .86 lbs. of fat. If the separation is still 
poorer, greater losses will be sustained, as will be seen in 
the table given below. (Friis.) 





Excess of Fat Left in Skim-milk. 


Lbs. of Milk 








per Day. 


.05 per cent. 


.10 per cent. 


.20 per cent. .30 per cent. 




Loss of Butter During Whole Year. 


1,000 


170 


340 


680 


1,020 


2,000 


340 


680 


1360 


2.040 


3,000 


510 


loao 


2040 


3.060 


4,000 


680 


1360 


2720 


4.089 


5,000 


850 


1700 


3400 


s.ioo 


6,000 


1020 


2040 


4080 


0.120 


7,000 


1190 


2380 


4760 


7.140 


8,000 


1360 


2729 


5440 


8,160 


Q 000 


1530 


3060 


6120 


Q.tSo 


10,000 


T700 


3400 


C800 


10,200 



MILK. 221 

RELATION OF FAT CONTENT OF SEPARATOR 
SKIM-MILK AND SPEED OF BOWL, QUANTITY 
OF MILK SEPARATED, AND TEMPERATURE 
OF THE MILK. 

Fleischmann gives the following formula for ascertaining 
the fat content of separator skim-milk, y' being he per cent 
fat in the skim-milk, M the quantity of milk skimmed per 
hour, u the speed of the bowl, and t the temperature of 
the milk: 

/=rr^X 1.035 

r is a constant which must be determined for each machine; 
Hittcher found its value, in the case of three different ma- 
chines, as follows: 480,152; 547,800; 363,430. The results 
obtained by the use of the formula seem to agree fairly 
well with chemical analysis of the skim-milk where care 
is taken in determining the various factors entering into 
the calculation. 

STEAM BOILER AND ENGINE MANAGEMENT. 

By Frof. A. W. Richter, of the University of Wisconsin. 

Boiler. 

Fegd Apparatus. — Every boiler should be provided with a 
check-valve, placed between the feed apparatus and boiler, and 
in such a manner as to have the weight of the valve assist in 
closing it. Between this check-valve and boiler there should be 
an additional globe or gate-valve which may be closed, thus 
permitting repairing or cleaning of the check-valve while the 
boiler is in operation. 

Water Supply. — Feed-water should enter a boiler in such a 
manner that the plates do not receive the direct impact of cold 
water. The usual practice is to have the feed enter through 
the blow-off pipe, thus preventing this pipe from clogging. The 
feed supply should be regulated so as to keep the water level 
as stationary as possible, The greatest care must be taken that 
the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. Neg- 
lect in this direction will cause the metal to become overheated 
and consequently weakened, causing leakage of joints and in- 



222 DAIRYINGo 

creased wear and tear, but more often resulting in an explosion 
of a more or less serious nature. 

Water-glass and Water-gauges. — Every boiler should have 
three water-gauges in addition to a water-glass ; these are 
usually attached to a hollow cast-iron cylinder or tube con- 
nected with the water and steam spaces. 

The water-glass should be blown out daily, and, if clogged, 
can be safely cleaned with a bent wire. 

In no case should the water glass alone be depended upon to 
indicate the water level. 

Steam-gatige. — Each boiler should be provided with a steam- 
gauge, which gauge should be directly connected with it. 

Safety-valve. — Every boiler should be provided with a safety- 
valve having direct communication with the steam space, and 
moreover should there be an intervening valve. Some of the 
most disastrous explosions can be traced to faulty arrangement 
in this respect. The valve thoughtlessly left closed after clean- 
ing or repairs prevents the safety-valve from relieving the 
pressure when it rises above the safe working pressure of the 
boiler. 

Safety-valves are of two kinds : spring and lever safety- 
valves. Of the two valves the lever-valve has the most dis- 
advantages, one of the most important being the ease with 
which it may be made useless by adding an additional weight 
to that already provided, in order to keep the valve on its seat, 
and therefore greatly increasing the pressure at which it will 
blow off. 

A safety-valve should be raised each day by hand so as to 
allow steam to escape; this prevents clogging and rusting. 

The dealer will usually set the spring-valve so that it will 
blow off at the desired pressure. It can be adjusted, however, 
by loosening or tightening a screw provided for that purpose. 

The lever-valve may be set v.'ith the aid of the following 
formula: 

_ ^^^ -Vb- w: 
W ' 

/ — distance from weight to fulcrum; 
^ = " "' valve centre to fulcrum; 

c = distance from the centre of gravity of the lever of the ful- 
crum; 



i 



CREAM. 223 

P = boiler pressure; 

A ■=■ area of valve ; 

F"= weight of valve; 

w = " " lever, 

W = weight hung upon the lever. 

Firing. — Firing should be gradual, and the grate kept com- 
pletely covered with coal or ashes. The fire should not be more 
than four or five inches deep unless the pieces of coal are large, 
in which case the depth may be increased. 

The fire-doors and fiue-doors should not be opened in order to 
keep down the steam pressure. This practice not only wastes 
fuel but is injurious to the boiler, and will not be necessary if 
the boiler is properly attended to. 

Priming or Foaming. — Foaming is a rapid disturbance of the 
water, in consequence of which it rises in the boiler in the form 
of sprav or foam; it is usually caused by dirty water, presence 
of oil, etc., the boiler not having been cleaned for some time or 
not thoroughly cleaned. Foaming may, however, be due to 
other causes, such as too small a steam space, sudden demand 
of a great quantity of steam, etc. In case a boiler foams all 
steam connections should be shut off and the fire dampened by 
means of a fresh supply of live coal or ashes. These precau- 
tions will usually suffice to allow the water to settle, and to 
enable one to ascertain the true water level. If the glass shows 
a small amount of water, start the pump or injector, and fill the 
boiler to a point between the second and third gauge. The 
boiler may then be blown off to the first gauge by means of the 
surface blow-off, if one be present, and if not present the regular 
blow-off valve may be used. This operation being repeated, 
the impurities are gradually diminished, but care must be taken 
that the water level does not fall below the top of the flues. 
The boiler can now be used as before, but in all cases it should 
be thoroughly cleaned as soon as possible. 

Removal of Scale. — Potatoes, about eight or ten in number, 
are sometimes placed in the boiler after cleaning. Soda or 
kerosene may also be injected with the feed- water in quantity to 
be determinec? by observation. Boiler compounds should be 
used with caution, and when used should be obtained from a 
reliable dealer. Too great a quantity of any of the above will 
be harmful. 



224 DAIRYING. 

Cleaning. — The interval during which a boiler requires no 
cleaning depends upon the quantity and the quality of water 
evaporated. Under usual conditions, in order to obtain the 
best results, a boiler should be cleaned every six or eight weeks. 

If a boiler is to be cleaned it should be allowed to stand until 
it is partially cooled off. When blown out cold the metal in the 
interior will usually be found covered with a thick coating of soft 
deposit, which can easily be scraped off or washed off with a 
hose and stream of water. 

If a boiler be blown off while the metal is at a high tempera- 
ture, the deposited matter is usually baked and forms a solid and 
hard coating, increasing rapidly if not carefully removed by the 
process of chipping. 

Boiler Power. — The manner in which the horse-power of a 
boiler is usually calculated is far from satisfactory, depending 
rather upon its size than its power of evaporation. 

In 1884 the American Society of Mechanical Engineers 
adopted the following definite standard: 

" A horse-power shall be equivalent to an evaporation of 
thirty pounds of water into dry steam per hour from feed- 
water at 100° Fahrenheit, and under a pressure of 70 lbs. per 
square inch above the atmosphere." 

Steam-engine. — The engine should be provided with a gov- 
ernor to regulate its speed, a lubricator to oil valve and piston, 
and a sufficient number of oil cups, so that all bearings may be 
properly oiled. 

Starting the Engine. — Before starting, all bearings should be 
supplied with oil, and all waste pipes connected with cylinder 
and steam-chest opened. The engine should then be started 
slowly, so as to allow the water to escape. A quantity of steam 
will always condense as it comes in contact v/ith the cold 
cylinder- walls, in addition to the water already present in the 
steam-pipe. This water does not pass off as readily as steam, 
neither can it be compressed to any great extent. Therefore, 
if more water be present in the cylinder than will fill the clear- 
ance space, and this water not be allowed to escape, the piston 
moving towards the end of its stroke will strike the water, and 
consequently be compelled to stop. The greater the speed of 
the piston as it advances, the greater the force with which it 
strikes the water, resulting in many cases in a broken cylinder- 
^ead, 



CBEAM. 225 

It is well to have a waste-pipe connected to the steam-pipe at 
a point just above the engine- valve, in order that the water 
which has collected in the steam pipe may be biown out before 
opening the steam-valve. 

After the engine has been in operation for a minute or two 
the waste-valves should be closed. 

Horse-power. — The horse-power of an engine may be calcu- 
lated by means of the following formula: 

H. P. = ^^; 

33000 

H. P. = horse power; 

P = mean effective pressure in the cylinder; 
L = twice the length of the stroke, in feet; 
a =: area of piston in square inches; 
n = number of revolutions per minute. 

ON THE PRESEUVATION OF MILK AND CUEA31 

BY HEAT. 

By Dr. H, L. Russell, of Wisconsin Experiment Station, 
Author of " Dairy Bacteriology". 

On account of the innumerable bacteria that gain access 
to milk during the process of milking, and subsequent to 
that time, and the rapid increase of the same in this nutri- 
tious fluid, this material universally undergoes fermentative 
changes, the rapidity of which is largely dependent upon 
the surrounding temperature. To increase the keeping 
quality of milk, it is necessary to annihilate these bacteria 
or keep them under influences unfavorable to their growth. 

Heat has been found to be the most efficacious agent in 
preserving milk in its natural condition. It is applied in 
two ways, viz., i. Pasteurization, where the milk or cream 
is heated for a short time (20-30 min.) at a temperature near 
the coagulating point of the proteid constituents of the milk 
(i50°-i6o° F.). 2. Sterilization, where the temperature ap- 
proximates or exceeds the boiling-point and is applied for 
a longer time. 

The object in both cases is to kill the bacteria present in 
the milk. 



I 



226 DAIRYING. 

Sterilization accomplishes this most successfully, but it 
changes the proteid compounds so that the milk has an un- 
desirable " cooked " flavor and odor. 

This defect is not found in pasteurized milk, and if prop- 
erly handled, milk treated by this process will remain sweet 
from 4 to S days. ■Al 

For use in the near future the pasteurized product is, on ^| 
the whole, the most satisfactory ; the sterilized material being 
best adapted for export purposes. 

The essential condition in pasteurization is that the pas- 
teurizing temperature shall exceed the thermal death point 
(the temperature at which growing bacteria are destroyed) 
of disease-producing as well as fermentative bacteria. This 
temperature for most forms is about 140° F., but certain dis- 
ease organisms like the tubeicle germ of tuberculosis is not 
killed below 149^ F. for 30 minutes, or 155° F. for 15 minutes. 
As this germ is often found in milk from tuberculous cows, 
prudence dictates the use of this temperature as a standard 
for the pasteurization of milk and cream. The proteids in 
the milk are slightly affected at this temperature, but if the 
milk is thoroughly chilled, the "cooked" flavor disappears. 

The application of this temperature kills only the growing 
bacteria, and does not affect the latent spores. If after 
being heated the milk is allowed to cool slowly, and is left 
at a comparatively warm temperature (exceeding 55^ F.), 
these spores germinate and soon change the character of the 
milk, so that the value of the heating process is lost. To be 
efficient, it is necessary to rapidly zoo\ the pasteurized prod- 
uct below the germinating point of the spores, for if they are 
once allowed to sprout, they will develop slowly at a very 
low temperature. 

In pasteurizing milk or cream, the apparatus should be 
constructed so that a definite quantity of the fluid can be 
held at any desired temperature for any length of time, and 
during the process protected from infection from the air. 
The apparatus must also be made so as to be easily cleaned 
and thoroughly sterilized by steam throughout. The milk 
must be protected from air infection during its withdrawal 
from the pasteurizing vat into storage vessels (cans and 



MILK. 227 

bottles), and should be thoroughly chilled in a refrigerator 
for several hours (better over night) before being delivered 
to the consumer. This chilling process should succeed the 
heating operation as quickly as possible, as the sudden 
transition in temperature from 155° F. to 55° F. or less has 
a paralyzing effect on the development of those organisms 
(spores) that are not killed by the heat. A large number of 
machines have been put on the market, but they have for 
the most part been designed primarily from the dairyman's 
standpoint, and while they fulfill their requirements as to 
capacity, cheapness, etc., yet they cannot be relied upon to 
treat the milk in a way so as to free it with .certainty from 
all possible disease-producing bacteria. 

Pasteurization in this country is applied with great suc- 
cess to milk and cream where these products are used in 
the liquid form. It is used to some extent in this country, 
but much more widely in continental Europe, in the prepara- 
tion of cream for the manufacture of butter by the use of a 
pure culture-starter. It can also be used advantageously 
in the hot months for increasing the length of time that 
by-products of the factory like skim-milk and whey may be 
preserved. 

Pasteurization, as well as sterilization, reduces the body, 
consistency, of milk and cream, and these products therefore 
seem thinner after having been subjected to the process of 
heating than before. To obviate this, Dr. Babcock and 
the writer in 1896 recommended the addition of a small 
quantity of a solution of sucrate of lime (" viscogen ") to 
the milk or cream, which will restore the consistency of the 
products, and in case of cream, greatly increase its whip- 
ping quality. (See Bull. No. 54 or thirteenth report of 
Wisconsin Experiment Station.) 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE STERILIZATION OF MILK 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

The Sterilization of milk for children, now quite exten- 
sively practised in order to destroy the injurious germs 
which it may contain, can be satisfactorily accomplished 



228 DAIRYING. 

with very simple apparatus. The vessel containing the 
milk, which may be the bottle from which it is to be used 
or any other suitable vessel, is placed inside of a larger 
vessel of metal, which contains the water. If a bottle, it is 
plugged with absorbent cotton, if this is at hand, or in its 
absence, other clean cotton will answer. A small fruit-jar 
loosely covered may be used instead of a bottle. The re- 
quirements are simply that the interior vessel shall be raised 
about half an inch above the bottom of the other, and that 
the water shall reach nearly or quite as high as the milk. 
The apparatus is then heated on a range or stove until the 
water reaches a temperature of 155 degrees Fahrenheit, 
when it is removed from the heat and kept tightly covered 
for half an hour. The milk-bottles are then taken out and 
kept in a cool place. The milk may be used any time within 
twenty-four hours. A temperature of 150 degrees main- 
tained for half an hour is sufficient to destroy any germs 
likely to be present in the milk, and it is found in practice 
that raising the temperature to 155 degrees and then allow- 
ing it to stand in the heated water for half an hour insures 
the proper temperature for the required time. The tempera- 
ture should not be raised above 155 degrees, otherwise the 
taste and quality of the milk will be impaired. 

The simplest plan is to take a tin pail and invert a per- 
forated tin pie-plate in the bottom, or have made for it a 
removable false bottom perforated with holes and having 
legs half an inch high to allow circulation of the water. 
The milk-bottle is set on this false bottom, and sufficient 
water is put into the pail to reach the level of the surface 
of the milk in the bottle. A hole may be punched in the 
cover of the pail, a cork inserted, and a chemical thermom 
eter put through the cork, so that the bulb dips into the 
water. The temperature can thus be watched without re- 
moving the cover. If preferred an ordinary dairy ther- 
mometer may be used and the temperature tested from time 
to time bv removing the lid. This is very easily arranged, 
and is just as satisfactory as the patented apparatus sold 
for the same purpose. 



MILK. 229 

QUANTITY OF WATER OR ICE REQUIRED FOR 
COOLING MILK OR CREAM. (Martiny.) 

The quantity of water or ice required to cool milk or 
cream may be calculated from the following formulas, where 

M ^= quantity of milk or cream to be cooled, in lbs. 

t = its temperature. 

W = quantity of water required for cooling, in lbs. 
j_ «. .. j^,g .. i. «. <( .. 

/' = temperature of water or ice at beginning. 
7^= end temperature of cooled milk or cream, 
r = end temperature of cooling water. 
S = specific heat of milk (.84*) or of cream (.78*). 
79.25 = latent heat of water. 

(a) Water required for cooling milk or cream — 

1. Cooled in tin cans holding milk or cream to be cooled: 

„r {Mt - MT)S 
T-f 

2. By application of coolers and running water: 

Tx. {^f - MT)S 
r — t' 

(<5) Ice required for cooling milk or cream — 

{Mt - MT)S 



1 = 



T-]-t' X 79-25 



In these formulas the influence of the surrounding air is 
not considered. 

* Not determined, but considered approximately correct. 



230 DAIRYING. 



IV. BUTTER. 

BUTTE R-M AIDING. 

By H. B. GuRLER, De Kalb, 111., ex-President 111. State Dairymen's Assn., 
Author of " American Dairying." 

Butter is made from milk. The cow manufactures the 
milk from the food she eats, hence the necessity of sound 
food. Unsound food make« off-flavored milk and poor 
butter. Some cows can manufacture food into milk at a 
profit, others cannot; hence the necessity of knowing the 
individuality of each cow, or her ability to work at a profit 
to her owner. 

At this stage of the dairy work there is no excuse for a 
dairyman not knowing what each and every cow is doing 
for him, thus being able to "weed out" the unprofitable 
ones. 

Be careful and cleanly in milking. Remove the milk to 
a pure atmosphere as soon as drawn from the cows, If the 
cream is raised by gravity process be careful of the sur- 
roundings, as milk will absorb bad odors from decayed 
vegetables, the hog-pen, the cow-yard, the kerosene-can, a 
filthy stable, from cooking in the kitchen, and various other 
sources. 

When milk is put through the separator as soon as it is 
drawn from the cow this source of danger is removed. 
Cream from the separator should be cooled immediately to 
a temperature of 60°; 55° is better. A cooler that will 
a?rate at the same time it is cooling is very desirable. This 
is a vital point which many butter-makers stumble over. 
When through separating and cooling, temper the cream to 
the temperature necessary to have it ripen at the time you 
wish to churn. If it is to be churned the following day this 
temperature should be 65°-7o^ If the second day, 55°-6o°; 
and if it is to stand four to seven days, cool to 40°, if possi- 



BUTTER. 231 

ble, as soon as practicable, and hold at that temperature 
until the day before you wish to churn, when it should be 
warmed to a temperature that will give the rigtit acidity by 
the time you wish to churn. This temperature will depend 
on the kind of cream, whether separator cream or cream 
from some gravity process. Cream from shallow setting 
may be sufficiently ripened when taken from the milk. I 
recommend the use of Prof. Farrington's acid tablets for 
testing the acidity of cream (see p. 239). They are a great 
help to a beginner. 

Churn at as low a tempera'ture as you can. This will de- 
pend on the per cent of fat in the cream. Rich cream can 
be churned at a much lower temperature than cream poor 
in fat. Cream from deep, cold setting may be churned at 
58"^ to 62°; and thick, rich cream from shallow setting at 
a much lower temperature. An ironclad rule cannot be 
made that will fit all cases. The separator will give cream 
containing various per cent of fat, from 15 to 40 per cent. 
Separator cream containing 15 per cent fat will need to be 
churned at about the same temperature as deep, cold setting 
cream. Separator cream containing 40 per cent can be 
churned at a temperature of so'', can be gathered at 50°, so 
the buttermilk will draw at that temperature. A low tem- 
perature gives the most exhaustive churning. At this tem- 
perature the buttermilk should contain no more fat than 
the average separator skim-milk. Cream containing a large 
per cent of fat does not develop acid as fast as cream with 
more milk in it. Cool cream for churning about two hours 
before, so as to let the butter-fat have time to solidify or 
harden. This gives a more waxy texture to the butter. 

Stop the churn when the butter granules are the size of 
wheat. If the granules are too small there is danger of a 
loss from its passing through the strainer. Wash no more 
than is necessary to remove the buttermilk. The colder it 
is churned the less washing is needed. When butter gathers 
at 54° one washing is sufficient ; if at 62° to 64°, two or 
three washings will be needed. Washing removes some 
of the delicate flavor or aroma. Remove the water from 
the churn as soon as possible — as soon as it has done its 



232 DAIRYING. 

work. Never allow it to lie and soak unless there is no 
other way of hardening the butter to a temperature where 
you can handle it. 

Salt to suit your trade. Work once or twice, as you pre- 
fer; twice working is preferable, as it makes the nicer-ap- 
pearing butter. Work just enough to remove the mottled 
or streaked appearance. When worked twice this can be 
told at the time by the appearance of the butter. When 
worked but once it cannot be told until the butter has stood 
long enough for the salt to dissolve. If worked but once 
examine the butter the following day, until you make your- 
self a rule of thumb to work by. I have found this neces- 
sary. I am compelled to look after this point in my 
creamery work when the butter is worked but once. Use 
the kind of butter-package that suits your trade, but always 
let it be neat. Never send a mussy-looking package to 
market. You cannot afford to do it. 

ON THE USE OF PUKE CULTURES IN BUTTER- 
AND CHEESE-MAKING. 

The ripening of cream is brought about through the action 
of minute plants, so-called bacteria. These are practically 
omnipresent where man lives, and get into the milk during 
the milking and the handling of the milk and cream in the 
dairy. They multiply enormously in the cream during the 
ripening process, owing to the very favorable conditions of 
life which they find there. Some forms of bacteria are de- 
sirable and even essential in the manufacture of sour-cream 
butter; these feed largely on the milk-sugar of the cream, 
and decompose this component into lactic acid, which is the 
characteristic acid of sour cream (as well as of sour milk). 
Along with this formation of lactic acid in the cream other 
complicated, and yet but little understood, decomposition 
processes take place, the results of which are felt in the fine 
aromatic flavor of the butter produced. Other forms of 
bacteria cause obnoxious fermentations in the cream, and 
produce a butter of "off" flavor, in aggravated cases 
diseased butter, making the product unfit to eat, or at least 



BUTTER. 233 

unsalable as a first-class article. The process of sour- 
cream butter-making is therefore, at the bottom, a question 
of keeping the fermentations during the ripening of the 
cream in the right track, of controlling the same so as to 
exclude all but lactic-acid-producing bacteria. The old 
original way of reaching this end was to allow the cream 
to sour spontaneously, trusting to luck to obtain the desired 
fermentation of the cream by leaving it standing in a warm 
room for a couple of days. Later on, a buttermilk starter 
from a preceding churning or a skim-milk starter was added 
for the purpose of ripening the cream ; by this means 
the lactic-acid bacteria contained in the starter were intro- 
duced in such large numbers that they generally were able to 
crowd out other kinds of bacteria that might be found in the 
cream, and which, if left alone, would produce undesirable 
fermentations in the cream and bad flavor in the butter. 
The next step in advance was the introduction of pure 
cultures of lactic-acid bacteria; these consist of one or a 
few forms of bacteria, and when introduced in milk or 
cream will be apt to overpower all other forms of bacteria 
therein, and thus produce the pure mild flavor of sour- 
cream butter desired. 

The honor of having first introduced pure cultures in 
butter-making belongs to Dr. V. Storch, the chemist of 
the Danish state experiment station in Copenhagen; the 
bulletin describing Dr. Storch's investigations of this 
subject, "On the Ripening of Cream," was published in 
1890. Other bacteriologists in Europe and in this country 
have worked along this same line, and as a result we find 
that pure cultures are at the present time used almost 
universally in the manufacture of sour-cream butter in 
the creameries and dairies of northern Europe, and also 
in this country their use has become general and is spread- 
ing. The expected result of adding a pure culture-starter, 
viz., that of excluding all undesirable fermentations in 
the ripening of the cream, will not, however, follow with 
any certainty unless the seeding Avith the pure culture 
is preceded by pasteurization or sterilization of the cream, 
that is, at least a partial destruction of the bacteria already 
found therein. In Europe, notably in Denmark and the 



234 DAIRYING. 

other Scandinavian countries, pasteurization of the milk 
(or of the cream) is practised regularly in all the best 
creameries, in the former country at present in perhaps 80 
per cent of the creameries in operation. In this country 
the firms manufacturing and selling pure cultures have 
unfortunately not insisted on this point, and where pure 
culture-starters are used with us it is nearly always with- 
out previous pasteurization. One reason why pasteuriza- 
tion has not been adopted in the manufacture of butter in 
this country is that the market demands a higher flavored, 
' stronger" butter than is wanted by the European market, 
and the pure cultures on the market, when used with 
pasteurized cream, do not produce such a butter. The 
expense of pasteurization of the cream and the absence of 
proper apparatus, or non-introduction of such as have 
proved successful in European practice, furthermore tend 
to explain why our butter-makers do not generally pasteur- 
ize the cream in using pure culture-starters. 

The two pure cultures now on the market in this country 
are Chr. Hansen's Lactic Ferment and Conn's culture (B. 
41, Conn Culture Co., Waterloo, la., and Conn Butter 
Improvement Co., Philadelphia, Pa.). The former is of 
Danish origin, and is one of the standard pure cultures 
used in the Scandinavian countries; the latter was described 
by its originator in the author's Dairy Calendar for 1896. 
Both these cultures are placed on the market in dry form, 
the one as a powder, the other as pellets. Directions for 
using the cultures accompany each package sold. In 
general, the method to be followed is to seed the culture in 
a quantity of sterilized skim-milk or cream; this is kept for 
one to two days at a temperature below 90° (B. 41 70°, 
Lactic Ferment 86°); the starter is then mixed with the 
cream to be ripened, generally adding about 2 per cent. The 
cream will be ready for churning the next day. A piortion 
of the starter prepared is used for the seeding of a new lot 
of sterilized skim-milk, which will make the starter for the 
following day, and the same process is continued until 
deterioration of the starter sets in, as shown by lack of 
flavor in the ripened cream and in the butter; a fresh batch 
is then prepared from a new package of ferment. If proper 



BUTTER. 235 

care in sterilizing the skim-milk and in handling the starter 
is taken, the pure culture may be propagated in this manner 
for months. With lack of cleanliness and care it must be 
renewed every other week or oftener. 

While the use of pure cultures has not as yet become 
general in American creameries, the agitation caused by 
their introduction and the discussions in dairy papers and 
dairy meetings which they have brought about have doubt- 
less been of great benefit to our dairy industry in empha- 
sizing in the minds of butter-makers the necessity of 
thorough cleanliness in the creamery and the importance 
of the proper conduct of the ripening process for the 
manufacture of high-grade butter. They have enabled us 
to make butter of uniform fine flavor and of greater keep- 
ing quality than was previously possible. 

Where abnormal fermentations appear, and the butter 
produced is diseased or "off flavor," the evil may be 
remedied by the use of pure cultures. In case of the estab- 
lishment of an export trade of American butter of high 
quality, the pure cultures used in connection with previous 
pasteurization of the milk or cream will prove of great 
benefit, insuring uniform goods and perfect keeping quality 
in the product. 

The use of pure culture-starters in the manufacture of 
Cheddar cheese is of recent date, and but limited experience 
has so far been gained in this line. According to the 
testimony of some of our leading cheese-makers, and of 
recent experiments conducted at Wisconsin experiment 
station, their use for this purpose is very beneficial, cheese 
of improved, clean flavor and high keeping qualities being 
produced. Pure cultures may therefore be safely recom- 
mended for this purpose. The general method of applica- 
tion is similar to that followed in the manufacture of pure 
culture butter. The starter is propagated in sterilized 
milk and kept at 90° F. for one day, when it will be slightly 
lobbered, having an acidity of about .8 per cent. Mr. 
Decker of the Wis. Dairy School gives the following hints 
on the use of the starter by the cheese-maker: 

" The starter is introduced into the milk by rubbing it 



236 DAIRYING. 

through a fine hair sieve so as to break up curd particles. 
If too large quantities of starter is used, there is a tendency 
to produce a sour cheese. The best results are obtained 
when a 2 per cent starter, of the acidity given, is added. 

** In propagating the starter from day to day care must be 
taken to keep it free from contamination. It should always 
be prepared in a covered vessel that has previously been 
sterilized, and the milk used should first be pasteurized 
(or sterilized) and chilled before adding the 'seed.' Some 
of the original starter should be taken for ' seed,' not the 
whole milk after the starter has been added. 

" The starter cannot be used for cheese-making if the milk 
is overripe, which is the case when the rennet test is 65 
seconds or under (see p. 251). In sweet milk, testing by 
the rennet test 120 seconds, the addition of a 2 per cent 
starter will increase the acidity, so that the rennet test will 
act in 70 seconds. 

" With sweet milk the use of a pure lactic starter will 
result in the saving of 3-5 hours in time. With tainted 
milk in which the acid develops imperfectly the addition 
of the starter aids in producing the acidity required for the 
manufacture of Cheddar cheese." 

BOYD'S PROCESS OF CREAM RIPENING. 

By John Boyd, Chicago, 111. 

It is an accepted fact that the fine aromatic flavor and 
also the keeping properties of butter depend largely upon 
the treatment of the cream from the time it is separated 
from the milk until it is ready for the churn, that is, in 
the best possible condition to yield the maximum quantity 
and the best quality as to flavor, texture, solidity, etc., 
free from casein and other undesirable substances. This 
perfect condition of cream is understood by the term 
" ripened cream," and when this condition can be pro- 
duced by the butter-maker with uniformity, regardless of 
the seasons of the year or extremes of climate, the process 
may be reckoned as nearly perfect as possible, and not 
until then. It is most desirable that the process be as sim- 



BUTTER. 237 

pie as possible, in fact within the reach of every creamery 
and dairyman in the country, and all the means required to 
attain these results can and should be a part of every dairy 
and creamery, large or small. 

Boyd's process or system of ripening cream or milk is 
the result of years of practical work in a private dairy of 
about 40 Jersey cows. After it had been thoroughly tested 
and used, during all the seasons of the year, it was pat- 
ented in the United States, Canada, and Great Britain, 
and given to the public in the year i88g, a very consider- 
able time in advance of any of the artificial m.ethods of 
ripening, now being advocated under the representations 
of " pure cultures of bacteria." 

When first introduced it was met by a sea of opposition 
from the experts, who would see nothing good in it, but 
gradually it has been making its way in a quiet manner 
into popularity until at present it is being successfully 
practised in every state in the Union, and is gaining favor 
every day with the most practical butter-makers. 

The apparatus necessary to practise the process supplies 
all the conditions required to produce a uniform result every 
day in the year, the temperature of the lactive ferment 
and also of the cream being entirely under the control of 
the operator during the entire process; 

The directions for using the process, which go with every 
purchase of the apparatus, are as follows: 

To make the Best Ferment. — Take milk from fresh-milk- 
ing cows (that from pregnant cows will not answer); sub- 
merge the milk warm from the cows in Cooley cans in ice 
water. Skim at twelve or twenty-four hours, as most con- 
venient, and use this skimmed milk for making the fer- 
ment; or select milk as above, run it through a separator, 
and save the skimmed milk for making the ferment. 

The skimmed milk so selected is then brought to a tem- 
perature of go°, in a water bath, being constantly stirred 
during the operation of heating. As soon as the tempera- 
ture of the milk reaches go°, place it in the fermenting-can 
and close the cover tightly, having first rinsed out the can 
with warm water. Allow the can to remain closed for 



238 DAIRYING. 

twenty or twenty-four hours, when the ferment will be 
found thick and in the proper condition for mixing with 
the cream or milk to be ripened. 

How to 71 se the Ferment. — First bring the cream or milk 
in the vat to a temperature of 66° to 70° Fahrenheit, when 
the ferment is to be thoroughly mixed with the cream or 
milk in the proportion of 2 per cent of the ferment to the 
amount of cream or milk to be ripened. Remove one or 
two inches of the top of the ferment, which is not desirable 
to use, and strain the rest through a fine strainer or hair 
sieve into the milk or cream. The finer the ferment is 
broken up the more effective its operation will be. After 
the cream or milk and ferment are well stirred and mixed 
at the above temperature, the vat must be closed and al- 
lowed to remain undisturbed until the cream is ripened, 
requiring from twenty to twenty-four hours for the opera- 
tion; the cream when ripe will be found thick, mildly acid, 
and in the proper chemical condition, requiring only to be 
cooled to the proper temperature for churning. 

Churning. — The best temperature for churning depends 
so much upon circumstances that the range is very wide, 
from 55" to 68' Fahrenheit. The richer the cream in but- 
ter-fat the colder the temperature should be, and the more 
milk the cream contains the higher the churning tempera- 
ture should be. After the cream or milk and ferment are 
mixed, no more stirring is admissible, as any agitation of 
the cream afterwards retards the ripening process. 

Butter by Shallow-pan Creaming. — Raise the cream in a 
temperature of about 60° F. ; avoid as much as possible 
skimming milk in with the cream; ripen at about 65'' F. ; 
churn at 60° to 62°. Free the granules of butter from the 
buttermilk by washing in water, temperature about 55°. 
Salt, I oz. to I lb. of butter. 

Butter by Deep Cold Setting and Cooley System. — Raise the 
cream in ice-water; milk may be skimmed in with the 
cream or not as desired; with the Cooley cream a very 
considerable portion of milk added to the cream will pro- 
duce no bad effects. Ripen at a temperature of 68° by 
adding lactive ferment; churn at temperature of 58° to 65°; 



BUTTER. 239 

wash the granules in water, temperature 50° to 55", and 
salt as above. 

Butter fro7n Separator Cream. — Cool the cream from sep- 
arator to 66' to 68°, add lactive ferment, and churn at 55° to 
58°, according to the percentage of butter-fat in the cream. 
The cream should be cooled after ripening so that the 
temperature of the cream will register not over 55°, This 
cooling requires time and patience, but will be rewarded 
with solid granules. Wash in water at 50° to 52°. Salt, 
I oz. to I lb. of butter. 

Good butter should not contain more than 165^ of water 
(and may contain as little as 8^) when properly worked. 
It is sufficiently worked when it presents a delicate elastic- 
ity to the touch, and when broken should show a perfect 
uniformity of grain and color. 

THE ALKALINE TABLET TEST OF ACIDITY IN 
MILK OR CREAM. 

By Prof. E. H. Farrington, of Wisconsin Dairy School. 

Since this test was first described by the author, a 
number of changes have been made in the way of 
using it. 

Reliable results are now obtained with less and simpler 
apparatus than when the test was originally published. 
"At the present time it is used for two purposes. 

First. — For testing the acidity of milk. To detect those 
lots which are apparently sweet, but too nearly sour for 
pasteurizing, for retailing, or for making the best butter 
or cheese. 

Second. — For testing the acidity of each lot of cream dur- 
ing its ripening, to trace the progress of its souring, and to 
show whether the fermentations should be hastened or 
checked in order to have the cream in a certain acid condi- 
tion at a given time and ready for churning. 

In addition to the tablets, the only apparatus necessary 
for testing the acidity of either milk or cream is a common 
white teacup, a 4, 6 or 8 oz. bottle, and a No. 10 brass car- 
tridge-shell or similar measure. The testing solution is 



240 DAIRYIJ^G. 

prepared by dissolving one tablet in one ounce of water. 
This is the standard. Four ounces of the tablet solution are 
made by filling a four-ounce bottle with water and adding 
to it four tablets. The No. lo shell is filled with the milk 
or cream to be tested. This measured quantity is poured 
into the white cup. The same measure is then filled with 
the tablet solution and this is poured into the cup. The 
two liquids are thoroughly mixed and the color of the mix- 
ture is noted. If there is no change of color, another 
measure of tablet solution is added. This is continued 
until the sample which is being tested becomes of a pink 
color. As soon as the pink color is obtained no more tablet 
solution is added. The per cent of acid in the sample 
tested is found from the number of measures of tablet 
solution it is necessary to add to one measure of the 
sample in order to produce the pink color. Each measure 
of tablet solution represents one tenth of one per cent 
acid. 

A more exact testing of acidity can be made by using a 
20-CC. pipette for measuring the milk or cream to be tested 
and a 50-cc. graduated cylinder for the tablet solution. 

Five tablets are dissolved in 50 cc. of water in the 
cylinder, and this solution is gradually poured into the 
20 cc. of milk or cream in the white cup. When sufficient 
tablet solution has been added to produce the pink color in 
the sample tested, the operator observes on the scale of the 
graduated cylinder the number of cc. tablet solution used 
and from this calculates the per cent of acid in the sample 
tested. Each cc. of this tablet solution is equal to 0.0034 
gr. lactic acid, and when 20 cc. of a sample is tested, each 
cc. of the tablet solution is equal to .017 per cent acid in 
the sample. 

Milk does not smell or taste sour until it contains from 
three to four tenths of one per cent acid. It has been 
found, however, that milk containing over two tenths per 
cent acid cannot be safely pasteurized, because such milk 
sours very soon. These tablets supply a quick means of 
selecting the sweetest of different lots of sweet milk, by 
showing which contain less than two tenths of one per 
cent acid. 



BUTTER. 241 

Cream is oit^u ripened so far that the qua'.ity of the but- 
ter is injured. The usual method of the butter-maker for 
testing the sourness of the cream is by the sense of smell 
and taste. A tablet test shows exactly what per cent ct 
acid each lot of cream contains, so that the butter-maker 
is better able to manufacture a uniform grade of butter by 
ripening his cream to the same point before it is churned. 
Sweet cream contains about 0.15$^ acid. Cream has reached 
the proper point for churning when it contains about six- 
tenths per cent acid. As the souring of cream is largely 
influenced by the temperature at which it is held, the but- 
ter-maker is able to know from an acid test of the cream 
whether it should be warmed or cooled in order to ha'-e i'. 
ready for churning at a given time and just sour enough 
for making butter of good flavor. 

DIRECTIONS FOR THE USE OF MANNS' TEST 

FOR ASCERTAINING THE ACIDIVY OF 

CREAM. 

1. Stir the cream thoroughly; insert small end of pipette 
in cream and draw until nearly full; then put the finger over 
upper end of pipette and allow cream to escape slowly (by 
admitting air) until mark on neck of pipette is reached. 
Transfer to a tumbler, rinse the pipette three times with 
lukewarm water, adding the rinsing water to the cream in 
the tumbler. Now add to contents of the tumbler three 
drops of the solution marked " Indicator" (phenolphtalein). 

2. Fill the, burette up 10 the o mark with the solution 
marked " Neutralizer" (alkali solution). 

3. While constantly stirring the cream with the glass rod, 
allow the liquid to flow from the burette into the tumbler 
until the entire contents of the tumbler shows a pink tinge. 
Stop adding the solution from the burette the moment the 
color is permanent. 

4. Read the level of the liquid remaining in the burette. 
The reading shows the amount of acid present. 

The experience of those using the test indicates that 
where the acidity of the cream is right, to secure the best 
results in yield and flavor of butter, from 38 to 42 cc. of the 
neutralizer will be required for the test. It is a simple 



242 



DAIRYliq'G. 



matter for each butter maker to learn by experiment the 
exact degree of acidity and churning temperature suited to 
the best results, and with these as standards reduce the 
process of butter-making to a certainty. By testing his 
cream in the afternoon the butter-maker will be able to set 
it to ripen at such a temperature that it will show the proper 
acidity for churning next morning. 

In testing the milk for cheese-making the same directions 
are to be followed, excepting that a much less acid condition 
is required; probably 15-20 cc. will give the best results. 
The whole numbers are cubic centimeters; the intermediate 
divisions are fractions of a cubic centimeter. 

Precautions in Using the Test. — The solution marked "Neu- 
tralizer" is prepared of a certain strength. It is essentia 
that this strength remain constant. Never let this solutior; 
stand without a stopper. Keep in glass or stoneware. 

PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF BUTTER. (Konig 1 



No. of analyses included. 

Water 

Fat 

Casein 

Milk sugar 

Lactic acid 

Ash 



Aver- 


Mini- 


Maxi- 


Sweet 
Cream 
Butter. 


age. 


mum. 


mum. 


302 






10 


13-59 
84-39 
•74 
-50 I 
.62) 


4-15 

69.96 

.19 

-45 


35-^2 

86.15 

4.78 

1. 16 


12.93 

84.53 
.61 
.68 


.66 


.02 


15.08 


1-25 


100.00 



Sour 
Cream 
Butter. 



13.08 
84.26 



.66 



1. 19 



AVERAGE CHEMICAL. COMPOSITION OF SWEE'I 
CREAM- AND SOUR CREAM-BUTTER. 

(Fleischmann.) 





Made from Sweet 
Cream, not Salted. 


Made from Sour 
Cream, Salted. 




Not 
washed. 


Washed. 


Not 
washed. 


Washed. 


Water 

Fat 


Per ct. 

15 00 

83 -47 
.60 
.80 
•13 


Per ct. 

75. 00 

83-73 

■55 

.60 

. 12 


Per ct. 

12.00 

84 75 
.50 

-55 
2.20 


Per ct. 

12.50 

84.62 

.48 

.40 

2.00 


Casein and albumen 

Other organic .substances 

Ash, or ash and salt 



BUTTER. 



24: 



ANALYSES OF PREMIUM BUTTERS, FAT-STOCK 
SHOW, CHICAGO, 1889.— IN PER CENT. (Morkow.) 



Description of Samples. 



Sweepstakes — Creamery, gathered cream 

" " whole milk 

" Dairy 

" From a grade cow 

First prize — From a Jersey cow 

" *' From a Shorthorn cow 

" " From an Ayrshire cow 

" " From a Devon cow 

" " From a Holstein cow 

Average 



* 






1 


<u 


, 




u 


u 




rtR 


<U 




H 
q6 


a! 




9.99 


85.41 


94 


12. 19 


82 


6b 


93 


8.49 


86 


53 


q<,.H 


9.71 


85 


96 


91 


8.99 


88 


08 


91 


12.07 


84 


79 


93 


9-53 


8b 


53 


87 


10.78 


86 


20 


92-5 
92.5 


10.56 


85 


53 


10.23 


85 


74 



.96 



3-58 

3-93 
4. 12 

3-29 
2.13 
1.79 
3 32 
2.29 

3-03 
3-05 



percentage c03ip0siti0n of european sam- 
pijES of butter. 



Number of samples 
analyzed 

Water 

Fat 

Casein, milk-sugar, ( 
lactic acid, etc. | 

Salt 









French. 




■a 


icO 










C lU <L> 

^ "> a 


■g"5 

« 


J3 
c 


X5 

CO 

'■3 


V 


C 0) 


c 
.5 


(/2 


Q 


C/5 


Hi 


►- 





28 


12 


40 


5 


78 


15 


24 


11.99 


13-35 


13.84 


12.05 


13-73 


15-33 


12.22 


85-47 


83.40 


84.35 


84 -34 


84.82 


83.00 


85.68 


1. 19 


1-39 


1.23 


1.60 


1.36 


1.47 


1.26 


1-35 


1.86 


•58 


2.01 


.09 


.20 


.84 



be 

c 



50 
11.64 
86.93 

.60 

.83 



FORMULA FOR CALCULATING THE YIELD OF 

BUTTER. 

In ordinary dairy or creamery practice, where moden. 
methods of creaming and churning are applied, the yield 
of butter will exceed that of fat in the milk by 15 to 16 per 
cent, or r pound of fat in the milk will produce about 1.15 
pounds butter, i.e., yield of butter from 100 lbs. of milk = 
1. 15/, /being the per cent of fat in the milk. 

FleischmanrC s formula: 

Yield of butter = 1.16/— .25 

* The standard of ihe scale of points in a total of 100 was: Flavor, 45; 
grain, 30; color, 15; salting, 10, 
+ Chiefly salt 



244 



DAIRYING. 



Conversion Factor for Calculating Yield of Butter from the 
Amount of Butter-fat, — The following resolution was passed 
by the Association of American Agricultural Colleges and 
Experiment Stations at the annual convention of the asso- 
ciation, July, 1895: 

" Resolved, That this association recommends to the 
several stations that the results of tests of dairy cows or 
herds be expressed in terms of butter-fat, and that when 
desirable to express these records in terms of approximate 
equivalent in butter such equivalent be computed by multi- 
plying the amount of butter-fat by ig." (Report of Curtiss, 
Armsby, and Cooke.) 

The factor i\ is based upon the results of the Columbian 
dairy test, in which it was found that on the average 117. 3 
lbs. of butter were made from each 100 lbs, of butter-fat in 
the whole milk. 

AMOUNT OF BUTTER OBTAINED FROM 100 LBS. 
OF CREAM OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS. (Martiny ) 



Per Ct. Fat 


Yield of 


Per Ct. Fat 


Yield of 


Per Ct. Fat 


Yield of 


in Cream. 


Butter. 


in Cream. 


Butter. 


in Cream. 


Butter. 




lbs. 




lbs. 




lbs. 


15 


34-5 


22 


50.6 


29 


66.7 


16 


36.8 


23 


52.9 


30 


69.0 


17 


39- 1 


24 


55.2 


31 


7*-3 


18 


41.4 


25 


57-5 


32 


73-6 


19 


43-7 


26 


59S 


33 


75.9 


20 


46.0 


27 


62. 1 


34 


78.2 


21 


48.3 


28 


64.4 


35 


80.5 



BUTTER. 



245 



YIELD OF BUTTER FROM MILK OF DIFFERENT 

RICHNESS. (KlRCHNER.) 

xoo lbs. of milk will yield the number of pounds of butter given in the 
tab'e. (Percentage creaming, i6 per ct.; fat in butter, 83 per ci.) 



Per cent, of 
Fat in Milk. 


Per cent, of Fat in Skim-milk. 












.20 


-30 


.40 


-50 


2-5 


2.697 


2.600 


2.503 


2.406 


3.6 


2.812 


2.716 


2.618 


2.522 


2.7 


2.928 


2.832 


2-734 


2.638 


2.8 


3 044 


2.948 


2.850 


2-754 


2.9 


3.160 


3-063 


2.966 


2.869 


3.0 


3.276 


3-178 


3.081 


2.984 


3.1 


3 392 


3-293 


3-297 


3.100 


S-3 


3-508 


3-409 


3-313 


3.216 


3.3 


3.624 


3-525 


3-429 


3-3.32 


3-4 


3-739 


. 3-641 


3-544 


3-447 


3-5 


3-854 


3-757 


3-659 


3-562 


3.6 


3-969 


3-873 


3-774 


3-677 


3-7 


4.084 


3-989 


S-890 


3 793 


3.8 


4.200 


4.105 


4.006 


3-909 


3-9 


4.316 


4.220 


4.122 


4-025 


4.0 


4-432 


4-335 


4.238 


4.141 


4.1 


4-547 


4-450 


4-352 


4-257 


4.2 


4-663 


4-565 


4.468 


4-373 


4-3 


4-779 


4.681 


4-584 


4.489 


4-4 


4-895 


4-797 


4.700 


4.604 


*l 


5. on 


4-913 


4.816 


4-719 


4.6 


5-127 


5.028 


4.932 


4-834 


♦Z 


5-243 


5-144 


5-048 


4-949 


4.8 


5-359 


5.260 


5.164 


5-065 


4.9 


5-474 


5-376 


5.280 


5.i8i 


S-o 


5 589 


5-492 


5-395 


5-297 



246 



DAIRYIXG. 



POUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED TO MAKE ONE 
POUND OF BUTTER. 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk. 
2.8... 
3.0... 
3.2... 
3.4... 
3.6... 
3.8... 
4.0. . . 
4.2... 
4.4... 
4.6... 
4.8... 



Lbs. of Milk per 
I lb. of Butter. 

3I-I 

29.0 

27.2 

25.5 

24.2 

22.9 

21.7 

20. 7 

19.8 

18.9 

18.1 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk. 
5.0... 
5.2... 
5.4... 
5.6. . 
5.8... 
6.0... 
6.2... 
6.4... 

6.6... 
6.8... 
7.0... 



Lbs. of Milk per 
I lb. of Butter. 

17.4 

. 16.7 

16.I 

15-5 

I5-0 

14.5 

14.0 

13-6 

13-2 

, 12.8 

12.4 



7.-bs. of Milk per 
I lb. of Butter. 



10 

II. 

12. 

13. 
14. 

15. 

16. 

17. 
18. 
19. 
20. 
21. 
22. 

23 
24. 

25 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk. 

. 8.70 

, 7.90 

. 7-25 

. 6.69 

. 6.21 

. 5-8o 

• 5.44 
. 5.12 
. 4.83 
. 4.58 

. 4.35 

. 4.14 

' 3-95 

• 3.78 
. 3-62 
. 3.47 



Lbs. of Milk per 
I lb. of Butter. 



26. 

27. 

28. 

29. 

30. 

31. 

32. 

33- 

34- 

35 

36. 

37. 

38. 

39- 
40. 



Per Cent 
Fat in Milk 

■ 3-34 
. 3-22 

. 3-II 

. 3.00 

. 2.90 

, 2.81 

. 2.72 

. 2.64 

. 2.56 

. 2.48 

r 2.42 
. 2.35 
. 2.29 
. 2.23 
2.17 



The two preceding tables are based on ordinary creamery 
experience, i pound of fat in the milk producing 1.15 
pounds of butter. 



BtJTTER. 



247 



NUMBER OF POUNDS OF MILK REQUIRED FOR 
MAKING ONE POUND OF BUTTER. (Kirchner.) 



Lbs. Butter per 


Lbs. Milk per i 


Lbs. Butter per 


Lbs. Milk per i 


loo lbs. of Milk. 


lb. of Butter. 


100 lbs. of Milk. 


lb. of Butter, 


2.4 


41.67 


3-8 


26.32 


2.5 


40.00 


3-9 


25.64 


2.6 


38.46 


4.0 


25.00 


2.7 


37-04 


4.1 


24-39 


2.8 


35 71 


4.2 


23.81 


• 2.9 


34-48 


4-3 


23.26 


3-0 


33-33 


4.4 


22.73 


3.1 


32.26 


4.5 


22.22 


3.2 


3125 


4.6 


21.74 


3-3 


30-30 


4-7 


21.28 


3^4 


29.41 


4.8 


20.83 


3-5 


28.57 


4-9 


20.41 


3-6 


27.68 


5-0 


20.00 


3-7 


27.03 


5-5 


18.18 



DISTRIBUTION OF 3IILiK INGREDIENTS IN 
BUTTER 3IAKING. (Cooke.) 











d 






Proportion 




-a 




C3 


a 
3 


nJ 




of the Total 




"cS-g 




'S 


-^ 3 




Milk Fat 




OC/3 


<A 


!5 


.n 


ri^ 


(A 


found in the 




H 


fa 


u 


< 


^ 


< 


Product. 




lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 


lbs. 




1000 lbs. of whole milk 


130.0 


40.0 


26.0 


7.0 


4Q-S 


7-S 




800 lbs. of skim-milk. . . . 


78.0 


2-4 


22.0 


6.0 


41.2 


6.4 


6 


200 lbs. of cream 


52.0 


37-6 


4.0 


1 .0 


».^ 


I.I 


94 


187 lbs. of buttermilk 


14.91 


.8 


3-77 


.94 


8.3 


I.I 


2 


43 . 3 lbs. of butter. 


37-09 


36.8 


-23 


.06 






92 



SCORE FOR JUDGING BUTTER. 

World's Fair, Chicago, 
1893. 

Flavor 45 

Grain 25 

Color 15 

Salting 10 

Packing 5 



100 



248 



DAIRYING. 



This score has been adopted in judging butter exhibits 
at various State fairs and dairymen's conventions during 
late years; in some cases the score has been changed to 
50 for flavor and 5 for salting, otherwise as above, or to 
flavor 40, grain 30, with other points as above. 

Minimum number of points entitling exhibitors to a 
premium: 

Wisconsin Dairymen's Association, 93, 95, and 94 points, 
for dairy, separator creamery, and gathered-cream butter, 
respectively. 

New York State Fair, 75 points. 

ENGL.ISH SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING 

BUTTER. (McCONNELL.) 

Perfection, 100. 

25 Flavor : nutty, aromatic, sweet. 

20 Moisture : as free from beads of water as possible. 

10 Solidity : firm, not melting easily, nor softening. 

25 Texture : closeness of grain, distinct fracture ; not 
greasy. 

10 Color : natural, even. 

10 Make : remaining points, cleanliness, salting, nicely 

put up, etc. 

100 



SCORE IN JUDGING PROFICIENCY OF BUTTER- 
MAKERS. 

(Adopted by British Dairy Farmers' Association.) 
Butter-making. 



Preparation of cream 4 

" " utensils 6 

Ventilation of churn . 4 

Judgment and skill in churning. . 15 

Washing butter in churn 10 

Use of strainer 4 

•' "thermometer . 7 

" "butter-worker 7 



Salting 5 

Making up 15 

Flavor and color 7 

Texture and freedom from moist- 
ure. 7 

Cleaning utensils 4 

Rapidity and cleanliness of work- 
ing 5 



ROD 



BUTTER. 



249 



A3IERICAN SCORE FOR JUDGING PROFICIENCY 
OF BUTTER-MAKERS. 

(Proposed by F. W. Culbertson.) 



Points. 
Preparation an .emperature of 

cream 8 

Straining cream and use of 

strainer 5 

Color and flavor 6 

Judgment and skill in churning 

and butter-working i8 

Butter in granular form 8 

Washing butter in churn 7 

Salting 5 



Points. 

Use of thermometer 5 

Making up and neatness of pack- 
age 10 

Grain and quality of butter 7 

Cleaning utensils : churn and 

worker 7 

Airing churn 3 

Testing buttermilk 3 

Neatness of person and cleanli- 
ness of work 8 



Perfection 100 



250 DAIRYING. 



V. CHEESE. 

HOW AMERICAN CHEESE IS MADE. 

By John W. Decker, of Wisconsin Experiment Station, Author of 

"Cheddar Cheese Making.*' 

A. Fiictory or Cheddar Cheese. 

As soon as the milk is received at the factory it is heated 
to S6"^ F. and a rennet test made.* 

If the milk is not ripe enough it is held till the proper 
acidity is reached. If the milk is ver)- sweet a starter of 
sour milk is added to hasten it. The milk should be set at 
such a ripeness that there will be one eighth of an inch 
of acid (fine strings) on the hot-iron in two hours and a half 
from the time rennet is added. 

If the cheese is to be colored the color is added just be- 
fore setting the milk. When it is thoroughly stirred in. 
we can add the rennet. The amount of rennet to be used 
depends on the kind of cheese desired. If a soft fast-cur- 
ing cheese is wanted, enough rennet is used to coagulate 
the milk in fifteen to twenty minutes : if a slow-curing 
cheese, enough to coagulate in thirty to forty-five minutes. 
It is stirred in thoroughly in four or five minutes and then 
the dipper is run lightly over the top, to keep the cream 
down till the milk begins to thicken, when a cloth cover is 
spread over the vat and the coagulation allowed to continue 
till the curd will break clean over the fingers. 

• The Mcnrad rennet test is recommended. It consists of a i6o cc. tin 
cylinder for measuring the milk, a 5 cc. pipette, a 50 cc. graduated flask, 
and a half-pint tin basin. The rennet is measured with the 5 cc. pipette 
and delivered into the 50 cc. flask, the rennet adhering to the pipette being 
rinsed into the flask ■with a little water. The flask is then filled with water 
to the 50 cc. mark, and the solution mixed by shaking. The milk, the 
temperature of which should be 86° F., is measured in the tin cylinder, 
emptied into the half-pint basin, and 5 cc. of the dilute extract is measured 
into the 160 cc. of milk, and the number of seconds required to curdle it 
noted. If a few specks of charcoal are scattered on the milk and the milk 
started into motion around the dish with a thermometer, the instant of 
curdling can be noted by the stopping of the sp>ecks. They will stop so 
suddenly as to seem to start ba^k in the cpposiie direciiun The .'i,*,irshiiii 
rennet test is a very convenient device for ascertaining the exact moment 
of coagulation. 



CHEESE. 251 

The curd is then cut, using the horizontal knife first and 
cutting lengthwise of the vat. The cutting is finished from 
this point with the perpendicular knife, the curd being 
thus cut into cubes one half inch in diameter. 

Without waiting for the curd to settle, we begin stirring 
very carefully with a wire basket, and rub the curd off from 
the sides of the vat with the hand. As soon as this is done 
we turn on the heat carefully and raise the temperature 
slowly to 98° F. ; when the curd is firm enough a wooden 
rake ie used to stir it. The temperature is raised at the 
rate of one degree in four or five minutes. 

As soon as the temperature of 98° F. is reached we begin 
trying the curd on the hot-iron for acid. We must have the 
curd firm enough when the whey is drawn, so that a double 
handful pressed together will fall apart readily. This is 
the test for a proper cooking. When fine threads one 
eighth of an inch in length show on the hot iron the whey 
is ready to draw. This should be two and a half hours 
from the time the milk was set. The whey is drawn off by 
means of a whey gate and a whey strainer, and the curd 
dipped into a curd-sink or on racks placed in the vat. 
There should be racks in the curd-sink over which a linen 
strainer-cloth is thrown. The curd is dipped onto this 
cloth and the whey drains through. The curd should be 
stirred, to facilitate the escape of the whey, and is then left 
to mat together. In fifteen or twenty minutes it can be cut 
into blocks eight or ten inches square, and turned over. 
After turning several times these blocks can be piled two 
or three deep. The acid will continue to develop in the 
curd ; when it will string about an inch it will have as- 
sumed a stringy or meaty texture, so that it will tear like 
the meat on a chicken's breast. 

It is then run through the curd-mill and cut up into small 
pieces. These pieces are stirred up every little while to air. 
In the course of another hour and a half there will be two 
inches of acid on the curd ; it will smell like toasted cheese 
when pressed against the hot-iron, and when a handful is 
squeezed, half fat and half whey will run out between the 
fingers. It is then ready to salt. It is cooled to 80'' F. be- 



352 DAIRYING. 

fore salting. If a fast-curing cheese is wanted we use two 
pounds per hundred pounds of curd; two and a half pounds 
are used for a medium cheese, and three pounds for a slow- 
curing cheese. The curd should be spread out at an even 
thickness and the salt applied evenly. It should then be 
thoroughly stirred several times. 

As soon as the harsh feeling has left the curd it is ready 
to go to press. The screw should be turned slowly, but 
fast enough so that a stream of brine is kept flowing. The 
full pressure should not be applied for ten minutes. In an 
hour the bandages can be turned down, and full pressure 
is then applied. The continuous-pressure gang-press made 
by D. H. Burrell and Co., is the most satisfactory, as the 
cheese will not loosen during the night. The next day the 
cheese are placed on the shelves and the rinds greased. 
They should be turned and rubbed every day. The tem- 
perature of the curing-room should be 60° to 65° F., and 
moisture should be supplied in dry weather. The cheese 
are boxed and shipped in about a month. 

B. Cheese Made on the Farm, 

For a farm dairy it will be much easier to make up 
sweet-curd cheese than sour-curd cheese, described in the 
preceding. For this purpose it is necessary to have a curd- 
knife, a cheese-vat, and a cheese-press; the method of pro- 
cedure is as follows : 

The milk, which must be clean and sweet, is heated to 
90° F., and if any artificial color is required it is added at 
this time. Set the milk with enough rennet extract to co- 
agulate in 20 to 30 minutes. About four ounces of Hansen's 
rennet extract per 1000 lbs. of milk will prove a sufficient 
amount. 

As soon as the curd will break over the finger cut it 
fairly fine ; then raise the temperature one degree in 3 
minutes until 108° F. is reached, at the same time stirring 
carefully to keep the curd particles apart. Hold at 108° F. 
till the curd is firm, that is, till the pieces do not feel mushy. 
Then draw the whey and stir till the whey is well drained 
out. Salt at the rate of 2h lbs. of salt to 100 lbs. of curd, 
and when the salt is well workeil in put it to press. The 
cheese should be cured in a room (preferably a cellar) 



CHEESE. 253 

where the temperature can be kept at 60° F., otherwise it 
will spoil. The cheese should be cured for two to three 
months before it is sold. 

CAUSES OF TAINTED MILK. 

The causes of tainted milk have been classified as fol- 
lows, by the Swiss scientist, Dr. Gerber: 

1. Poor, decayed fodders, or irrational methods of feeding. 

2. Poor, dirty water, used for drinking-water or for the 
washing of utensils. 

3. Foul air in cow-stable, or the cows lying in their own 
dung. 

4. Lack of cleanliness in milking; manure particles on 
udder. 

5. Keeping the milk long in too warm, poorly ventilated 
and dirty places. 

6. Neglecting to cool the milk rapidly, directly after 
milking. 

7. Lack of cleanliness in the care of the milk, from which 
cause the greater number of milk taints arise. 

8. Poor transportation facilities. 

9. Sick cows, udder diseases, etc. 

10. Cows being in heat. 

11. Mixing fresh and old milk in the same can, 
2. Rusty tin pails ar d tin cans (Bo,<>^gild), 

THE FER3IE\TATION TEST. 

At cheese factories there is often, especially during hot 
summer weather, a need of some test to discover the cause 
of abnormal fermentations which show themselves in 
tainted, pinholey, gassy, or floating curds. The trouble will 
generally be found to lie in the milk furnished by one or a 
few patrons who do not properly care for their milk, or 
who allow diseased or tainted milk of any kind to be mixed 
with the milk sent to the factory. The problem then is to 
detect the origin of the "off" milk, so as to refuse taking 
jt and thus prevent it spoiling the whole day's make of 
cheese. The experienced careful cheese-maker will be apt 
to find out such milk from its odor or general appearance 
when pouring it into the weighing-can, but it may some- 



254 DAIRYING. 

times escape attention. The Gerber fermentation test 
(modified by Monrad) furnishes a convenient method for 
discovering tainted milk. The test consists of a tin tank 
which can be heated by means of a small lamp, and into 
which a rack fits holding a certain number of cylindrical 
glass tubes ; these are all numbered and provided with a 
mark and a tin cover. In making the test the tubes are 
filled to the mark with milk, the number of each tube being 
recorded in a notebook opposite the name of the particular 
patron whose milk was i>lacefi therein. The tubes in the 
rack are put in the tank, which is two thirds full of water ; 
the temperature of the water is kept at 104-106° Y . for six 
hours, when the rack is taken out, the tubes gently shaken, 
and the appearance of the milk, its odor, taste, etc. , carefully 
noted in each case. The tubes are then again heated in the 
tank at the same temperature as before for another six 
hours, when observations are once more taken of the ap- 
pearance of the milk in each tube. The tainted milk may 
then easily be discovered on account of the abnormal coagu- 
lation of the sample. 

Gerber concluded from over 1500 tests made by this 
method : 

1. That good and properly handled milk should not co- 
agulate in less than 12 hours, nor show anything abnormal 
when coagulated. 

2. If it does, it shows the milk to be abnormal, either on 
account of its chemical composition or because it is impreg- 
nated with too much ferment (rather, abnormal ferments, 
causing an undesirable fermentation), 

3. Milk from sick cows, cows that are strongly in heat, 
or cows with diseased udders will always coagulate in less 
than 12 hours. 

4. Only about 20 per cent of the tests coagulated within 
12 hours. 

Monrad proposes the following rules for the adoption of 
this test by cheese factories : 

1. ■' A proper journal is kept of all the tests. 

2. ' The patrons whose milk is tainted have tf) pay the 
cost of making the test. 



CHEESE. 255 

3. " The patrons whose milk is tainted will be kept track 
of, and in case there is any loss caused thereby they will 
have to stand it. 

4. " Patrons having tainted milk shall be notified at once, 
and another test made three days later. If then the milk 
is still bad, a test of each cow's milk is made on the farm 
and otherwise the reason sought to be discovered, and until 
then the milk will be refused." 

Another test published in the twelfth report of Wiscon- 
sin Experiment .Station will prove very satisfactory for the 
purpose of detecting gas-producing bacteria in milk. The 
method, which calls for no special apparatus aside from a 
number of pint fruit-jars, is operated as follows : 

" i^int milk-bottles are sterilized in order to kill out any 
adherent germ-life, and then filled two-thirds full with milk 
from each patron. To each of these is added a definite 
amount of rennet extract (ten drops), and the bottles then 
immersed in warm water (98°-ioo'' F.). After the milk has 
set, the curd is cut and cooked in the usual manner. The 
whey is then poured off and the curds are allowed to mat, 
their condition being noted from time to time. In this way 
the normal conditions practised in cheese-making are ad- 
hered to quite closely, so that practically the various stages 
of making Cheddar cheese up to the point of putting to 
press is carried out, and the development of gas in the 
curds can be noted with exactness. Observations are usu- 
ally recorded after the lapse of about 4-6 hours and then 
again on the following day." 



DETERMINATION OF HUMIDITY IN CHEESE- 
CURING ROOMS. 

The proper degree of humidity in the cheese-curing 
room will vary with dififerent kinds of cheese and at difiler- 
ent stages of the curing process. Green cheese should be 
placed in a somewhat drier curing-room than older ; the 
latter kinds, according to Fleischmann. require a relative 
humidity of 90°-95", against Ss^'-go'' for green cheese. 



356 DAIRYING. 

Kirchner states that the humidity of curing-iooms should 
not, in general, go below 80' or above 95°. Temperatures 
from 50°-70° F. are preferable in the curing-room. 

The following temperatures and percentages of humidity 
are recommended by Martiny: 

Per Cent 
Deg. Fahr. Humidity. 

(a) For hard cheeses (Swiss, etc.). 

Green 59-^3 Qo-QS 

Half cured 54-59 85-go 

Cured 50-54 80-95 

(b) For soft cheeses (Limburger, etc.) 50-59 80-95 

In the interior of our continent it is somewhat difficult 
to obtain as much moisture in the air of curing-rooms as is 
represented by the preceding figures ; the relative humid- 
ity of ordinary curing-rooms in this region, therefore, but 
rarely goes over 60°. A higher degree of humidity may 
be obtained by hanging wet sheets of canvas in the curing- 
room (Decker), or by similar devices, as described in the 
thirteenth ann. report of Wis. Experiment Station. 

Self-recording thermometers are to be recommended for 
use in curing-rooms. For observation of relative humidity 
a wet and dry bulb thermometer, a Mittchoff's hygrometer, 
or a Lambrecht's polymeter may be used to advantage. 
Any of these instruments may be obtained through dealers 
in chemical glassware or dairy 'supplies; the prices range 
from $8 to $30. 



CHEESE. 



257 



TABLE SHOWING THE RELATIVE HUMIDITY IN 
THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS. (King.) 

Directions.^ — Notice that the table is in three column sections. Find 
air temperature in first column, then find wet-bulb temperature in second 
column, same division. In third column opposite this is relative humidity. 

Example. — Air temperature is 50°, in first column; wet-bulb is 44°, in 
second column, same division. Opposite 44° is 61, which is the percent 
of saturation, or the relative humidity of the air. 

Crt«^/£»«.— Fan the bulb briskly for a minute or two before taking reading. 



^1 




-•a 

Pis 


>,J2 


%a. 




°1 


Wet 
Bulb. 


^■i 

f^E 








40 


32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 


37 
44 
52 
59 
68 
76 

84 
92 


45 


35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 

43 
44 


31 
37 
44 
50 
57 
64 
71 
78 
85 
92 


49 


41 
42 

43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 


48 

54 
60 
67 

73 
80 
86 
93 


53 


46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 


58 
63 
69 
75 
81 
87 
94 




54 
55 


42 

43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 


32 
37 
42 
48 
53 

64 
7(1 
76 
82 
88 




32 
33 
34 

36 

37 
38 

39 
40 


31 
38 

46 

60 
68 
76 
84 
92 


50 


39 
40 

4^ 

42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 
49 


32 
37 
43 
49 
55 
61 
67 

74 
80 

87 
93 


41 


46 


35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 

42 
43 
44 
45 


26 
32 
38 
45 
51 
58 
65 
72 
79 
85 
93 




33 

34 
35 
36 

% 
39 
40 

41 


33 
40 

47 
54 
6r 
69 

77 
84 
92 


94 




51 


40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 
49 
50 


33 
39 
45 
50 
56 
62 
68 

74 
81 

87 
93 


43 
44 
45 
46 

47 
48 

49 
50 
5^ 
52 
53 
54 


33 
38 
43 
49 
54 
59 
65 
70 
76 
8* 
88 
94 


42 


47 


36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 


28 

34 
40 
46 
52 
59 
66 
72 
79 
86 

93 




33 
34 
35 
36 

37 
38 

39 
40 

41 

42 


28 
34 
41 
48 
55 
62 
70 
77 
85 
92 




52 


41 
42 
43 

44 
45 
46 

47 
48 
49 
50 
5^ 


35 
40 
46 
SI 
57 

69 

75 
81 

87 
94 


43 


56 
57 


44 
45 
46 

47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 


34 
39 
44 
SO 
55 
60 




48 


37 
38 
39 
40 

41 

42 
43 
44 
45 
46 

47 


29 
35 
41 
47 

60 
66 
73 
79 
86 

93 




34 
35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 

41 
42 
43 


29 
36 
43 
49 
56 
63 
70 
78 

85 
92 


65 
71 
77 
82 
88 
94 


44 


53 


41 

42 

43 
44 

45 


31 
36 
41 
47 
52 




49 


38 

?9 
40 


36 
42 


45 
46 

47 


36 
40 
45 



258 



DAIRYING. 



HUMIDITY IN THE AIR OF CURING-ROOMS.— 6b«. 



>^ 


■S-^ 


-• a" 


>.xi 


v-^ 


^ B 


>^Xt 


t>-^ 


^•a 


>>J3 


QJ-^ 


^ a 


^ 




V 3 


^1 


^1 


4; 3 


^i 


^i 






^3 


V 3 




48 


50 




58 


84 




55 


49 




61 


60 




49 


55 


61 


59 


89 




56 


53 




62 


64 




50 


61 




60 


94 




57 


57 




63 


68 




51 


66 










58 


61 




64 


72 








57 


52 


71 




50 


41 




59 


66 


70 


65 


77 




53 


77 




51 


45 


66 


60 


71 




66 


81 




54 


83 




52 


SO 




61 


75 




67 


86 




55 


88 




53 


54 




62 


80 




68 


90 




56 


94 


62 


54 


59 
64 

69 




63 
64 
65 


85 
90 
95 




69 


95 




46 


37 


55 
56 






58 
59 
60 


45 
48 
52 




47 
48 


42 
46 




57 
58 


74 
79 




54 


4t 






49 


51 




59 


84 




55 


45 




61 


56 




50 


56 




60 


89 




S6 


49 




62 


60 


58 


51 


61 




61 


95 




57 


53 




63 


64 






67 
72 










58 
59 


58 
62 


71 


64 

65 


68 




52 
53 




SI 


42 




72 




54 


78 




52 


46 


67 


60 


66 




66 


77 




55 


83 




53 


51 




61 


71 




67 


81 




56 


89 




54 


55 




62 


76 




68 


86 




57 


94 




55 


60 




63 


80 




69 


91 








63 


56 
57 


64 
69 




64 
65 


85 
90 




70 


95 




47 


38 
















48 


43 




58 


74 




66 


95 




59 
60 


45 
49 




49 


47 




59 


79 














50 


52 




60 


84 




55 


42 




61 


53 




51 


57 




61 


89 




56 


46 




62 


57 


59 


52 


62 




62 


95 




57 


SO 




63 


61 




53 


67 










f8 


54 




64 


65 












54 


72 




52 


43 




59 


58 


72 


65 


69 




55 


78 




53 


47 




60 


63 




66 


73 




56 


83 




54 


51 


68 


61 


67 




67 


77 




57 


89 




55 


56 




62 


71 




68 


82 




58 


94 




56 


60 




63 


76 




69 


86 








64 


57 
58 


65 
70 




64 
65 
66 


81 




70 

71 


91 
95 




48 


39 




85 
90 






49 


44 




59 


74 












50 


48 




60 


79 




67 


95 




60 


46 




51 


53 




61 


85 










61 


50 












52 


58 




62 


90 




56 


43 




62 


53 


60 


53 


63 
68 

73 




63 


95 




57 
58 
59 


47 
51 
55 




63 
64 
65 


57 
61 




54 
55 




53 


44 






65 




S6 


78 




54 


48 




60 


59 


73 


66 


69 




57 


84 




55 


52 




61 


63 




67 


73 




58 


89 




56 


56 


69 


62 


67 




68 


78 




59 


94 




57 


61 




63 


72 




69 


82 








65 


58 
59 


65 
70 




64 
65 


76 
81 




70 
71 


86 




49 


40 






91 




SO 


44 




60 
61 


75 
80 




66 
67 


86 




72 


95 




51 


49 






90 










52 


54 




62 


85 




68 


95 




61 


47 


61 


53 


58 




63 


90 










62 


50 










54 


63 




64 


95 




57 


44 


74 


63 


54 






68 
73 










58 
59 


48 
52 


64 
6% 


58 
62 




55 
56 


66 


53 


40 


70 






57 


78 


54 


45 




60 


55 




66 


66 



CHERSE. 



259 



HUMIDITY 


IN THE AIR 


OF CURING-ROOMS. - 


-Con. 






3^ 








'-'CQ 




^X 


u — • 

Q =^ 


^02 






67 


70 




63 


48 




72 


78 




69 


60 




68 


74 




64 


52 




73 


»3 




70 


64 




69 


78 




65 


55 


77 


74 


87 




71 


68 


74 


70 


82 




66 


59 




75 


91 




72 


71 




71 


86 




67 


t>3 




76 


95 


79 


73 


75 




72 


91 




68 


66 










74 












79 




73 


95 


76 


69 


70 




65 

66 
67 


49 




75 
76 

77 


«3 
87 
91 




68 


47 




71 


78 




56 






63 
64 


51 

55 




72 
73 


82 




68 


60 












87 




69 


63 




66 


47 




65 


5« 




74 


91 


-78 


70 


67 




67 


51 




66 


62 




75 


95 




71 


71 




68 


54 




67 


66 










72 


75 




69 












57 


75 


68 


70 




04 


49 




73 


79 




70 


61 




69 


74 




65 


52 




74 


«3 




71 


64 




70 


78 




66 


56 




75 


87 


80 


72 


68 




71 


82 


77 


67 


59 




76 


91 




73 


72 




72 
73 


«7 
91 




68 


63 

67 


















69 




66 


50 




74 
75 


75 

79 




74 


95 




70 


71 


79 


67 


53 




76 


Sci 










71 


74 




68 


57 




77 
78 


»7 
92 



SCORE FOR JUDGING CHEESE. 





World's 
Fair 
1893. 


New York, 1894. 


Wisconsin 
Dairymen's 
Assoc. 1894. 




For 
Export. 


For Home 
Trade. 


Flavor 


45 
20 

15 
10 
10 


45 
30 
15 

10 


50 
25 
15 

10 


45 
30 
15 


Texture (and body) 

Color 

Salting 


Make up (finish) 


10 




100 


100 


100 


100 



ENGLISH SCALE OF POINTS FOR JUDGING 
CHEESE. (McCoNNELL.) 

Perfection, 100. 

35 Flavor: nutty, buttery. 

25 Quality: mellow, rich, melting on tongue. 

15 Texture: solid, compact. 

15 Color: natural-like, even. 

10 Make: remainder, due to good making, as cleanliness, 

salting, perfect rind, etc. 

100 



200 



DAIRYIXG. 



PERCENTAGE COMPOSITION OF CHEESE. (Konig.) 



Cream cheese.. 
Full cream cheese 
Half-skim cheese. 

Skim cheese 

Sour-milk cheese., 
Whey cheese .... 



en 








1 . 


4; 






1 

X-o S 


i>i 


rt 


c 

(U 




t.^^ 
^J^ ^ 


i< 


rt 
^ 


40.71 


;5 C 3 
18.84 


u OJ rt 

.1-1 U V. 

1.02 


27 


36-33 


143 


38.00 


30.25 


2S-35 


1-43 


21 


39 -79 


23.92 


29.67 


1.79 


41 


46.00 


11.65 


34.06 


3-42 


15 


52.36 


16.03 


36.64 


.90 


7 


23.66 


16.91 


8.90 


45-75 



3.10 

4-97 
4-73 
4.87 
4.07 
4.78 



VARIETIES AND ANALYSES OF CHEESE. 

(MCCONNHLL.) 



British, pressed — 

Cheddar, 3 months 

" 6 " 

" average 

Cheshire, new 

" old 

Derby 

Dunlop 

Gloucester (single) 

"' (double) 

British, soft — 

Cream 

Stilton 

French, soft — 

Brie 

Camembert 

Gervais (cream) 

Neufchatel 

French, pressed — 

Gruyere 

Roquefort 

Dutch — 

Edam (round) 

Gouda(fiat) 

German — 

Backstein 

Swiss — 

Backstein 

Bellelay(soft) 

Emmenthaler 

Italian — 

Gorgonzola 

Parmesan 

Various — 

American factory 

Foreign skim, average 

German sour milk 

Whey cheese (cow) 

(goat) 

Centrifugal skim-milk cheese 



Water. 



Per ct. 
36-17 
31-17 
34-38 
36.96 

32.59 
31.68 

38.46 
32.50 
35.96 

30-65 
30.35 

50.3s 
50.16 

52 -94 
44-47 

34-87 
31.20 

36.28 
21.90 

73- 10 

35-80 
37-59 
35-14 

44.04 
31-34 

25-93 
46.08 
63.63 
24.21 
25.29 
50-5 



Casein. 



Per ct. 

24-93 
26.31 
26.38 
24.08 

32-51 
24.50 
25.87 
28.51 
21.74 

4-94 
28.85 

17.18 

21.85 
11.80 
14.60 

25.87 
27-63 

24.06 
46.95 

19.80 

24.44 
28.88 
30.86 

28.06 
41.99 

38.12 

33.37 

25.27 

9.06 

9.10 

4^.1 



Fat. Sugar. 



Per ct. 

31-83 
33-68 

32-71 
29-34 
26.06 
35 -20 
31-86 
28.23 
26.83 

62.99 
35-39 

25.12 
21 .13 
20.75 
33-70 

28.91 
33-16 

30.26 
24.81 

2.80 

37 40 
30.05 
31.00 

29.84 
19.22 

' 31-55 
10.54 

4-85 
20.80 
20.98 

T.2 



Per ct. 

3.21 
4.91 

5.17 

4-53 
4-38 



2.58 



6.12 



41 .01 
29.21 



Ash. 



Per ct. 

3.86 
3-93 
3-58 



•45 
31 
,24 
,81 
,66 
07 



382 

5.41 
3.89 
2-93 
2.99 

3-84 
6.01 



4.90 
6.32 



2.36 
3.48 
4.00 

3.87 
6.25 

4-38 
3 81 
3 67 
4.92 
3.88 
5-2 



CHEESE. 



261 



DISTRIBUTION OF INGREDIENTS IN CHEESE- 
MAKING. (Cooke.) 





Total 
Solids. 


Fat. 


Casein 

and 

Albumen. 


Milk- 
sugar. 


Ash. 


Cheese 

Cheese-press drips. . . 
Whey 


Per cent 
54-2 
•9 
44-9 


Per cent 
90.6 

•4 
9.0 


Per cent 

77-4 

.6 

22.0 


Per cent 
50 
i-S 
93-5 


Per cent 

36 

I 
63 








lOO.O 


100.0 


100. 


100. 


100 



DISTRIBUTION OF FERTILIZING INGREDIENTS 
IN CHEESE-MAKING. (Cooke.) 





Nitrogen. 


Phosphoric Acid. 


Potash. 


1000 lbs. of whole milk 

900 lbs. of whey 


lbs. 
5-30 
1-35 

3-95 


lbs. 

1.90 

1.23 

.65 


lbs. 

1-75 
1.6^ 


100 lbs. of cheese 


.12 







FORMULAS FOR FINDING YIELD OF CHEDDAR 

CHEESE. 

The approximate yield of green cheddar cheese from 100 
lbs. of milk may be found by multiplying the per cent of 
fat in the milk by 2.7; if /designate the per cent of fat in 
the milk, the formula will therefore be: 

Yield of cheese = 2.1 f. 

The factor 2.7 will only hold good as the average of a 
large number of cases. In extensive investigations during 
three consecutive years Van Slyke found that the number 
of pounds of green cheese manufactured for one pound of 
fat in the milk varied from 2.51 to 3.06, the average figures 
being 2.73. 2.71, and 2.72, for 1892-94, respectively. For 
cured cheese the factor will be somewhat lower, viz., about 
2.6 on the average. 

If the percentage of solids not fat and of fat in the sam- 
ple of milk are known, the following formula, published by 
Dr. Babcock in the twelfth report of the Wisconsin Ex- 



262 



DAIRYING. 



periment Station, will give close results (s = solids not fat; 
/=fat): 

Yield of green cheese = i.58(i-«" + -Qi/)- 

This formula is based on a water content of 37 per cent 
in the cheese; it may be readily changed to suit any par- 
ticular per cent. The average percentages of water in 
green cheese in Van Slyke's investigations referred to 
above were 36.41, 37.05, and 36.70 per cent for the years 
1S92-94, respectively. 

If the percentages of casein and fat in the milk are both 
known, the yield of cheese may be calculated from the fol- 
lowing formula, which will give fairly correct results: 

Yield of cheese = 1.1/ + 2.5 casein. (Babcock.) 

YIELD OF DIFFERENT KINDS OF CHEESE FROM 
100 LBS. OF MILK. (Fleischmann.) 



Soft full-cream cheese intended for immediate 

consumption 

Very soft full-cream cheeses (Brie, Camembert, 

Neuf chatel, etc.) 

Somewhat firmer, full-cream soft cheeses (Lim- 

burger, Remondon cheese, etc.) 

Soft half-skim cheese (Limburg), if lbs. butter and 
Soft skim cheeses {d la Brie, Camembert, Livarot. 

Backstein, etc.), 3-3.4 lbs. butter and 

Roquefort cheese (made from sheeps' milk) 

Full-milk, from American and English cheeses, 

and .75 lbs. whey-butter. 
Full-milk from Dutch and Swiss cheeses 

and .75 lbs. whey-butter. 

Half-skim firm cheeses, 1.6 lbs. butter and 

Skim-milk cheese, 3-35 lbs. butter and 

Sour-milk cheese, 3-3.5 lbs. butter and 

Scandinavian " Gammelost " 

and 3-3.5 lbs. butter. 
Whey cheese ("Mysost") 

and butter and skim-milk cheese. 



Green 
Cheese. 



lbs. 

25-33 
18-22 

13-16 
12-13 

7.5-12 
18 
9-11 

8-1 1 

7-10 

5-7 
7«5-9 
3-5-S-5 

6-7 



Cured 
Cheese. 



lbs. 



12-15 

9-1 1 
9-11 

6.5-9 

12-14. 5 
8-9 

7-10 
5-8 

a-3 



Whey in manufacture of full-cream cheese, 73-88 lbs., average 81 lbs. 
" " •♦ " half-skim " 72-80 " " 76 " 

" " " " skim cheese 66-76 " " 71 " 

Under similar conditions 5-7 lbs. less of whey are obtained in the manu- 
facture of soft cheese than in that of firm cheese. 

The loss sustained in the manufacture of cheese amounts on the average 
to 3 lbs. per 100 lbs of milk, not considering the losses incurred in the 
curing of the cheese. 



CHEESE. 



263 



AVERAGE LOSS OF AMERICAN CHEDDAR 
CHEESE IN CURING. (Babcock.) 



O 3 

. o 
^0 


Period 
Covered. 


Average 
Age. 


No. of 
Cheese. 


Total 
Weight 
Green. 


Total 
Weight 
Cured. 


Loss. 




Days. 


Days. 




Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Lbs. 


Per Cent. 


I 


I-IO 


6 


Q9 


2,812 


2,741.5 


70.5 


2.51 


2 


II-20 


16 


242 


7,356.9 


7,077.0 


279.9 


3.60 


3 ' 


21-30 


25 


298 


8,530.5 


8,160,4 


370.1 


4.34 


4 


31-60 


41 


417 


12,353-3 


11,684.4 


668.9 


S.41 


5 


Over 60 


141 


172 


6,244.4 


5,736.0 


508.4 


8. II 



Total number of cheese in preceding trials ^235. 

Average weight of green cheese ..30. 2 lbs. 

" temperature of curing-room 61° F. (range 55-70°). 

" humidity of air in curing-room 50 per cent. 

LOSS IN WEIGHT OP DIFFERENT KINDS OF 

CHEESE DURING CURING. (Martiny) 

Per Cent. 
Swiss (Emmenthal) — 

made from whole milk will lose in 5 months 8-14 

15-20 

12-15 



" " half-skimmed milk will lose in 8 

" " skim-milk will lose in 6 

Tilsit- 
made from whole milk will lose in 4 

Dutch (Gouda) — 

made from whole milk will lose in 3 

" skim " " " " 4 

American Cheddar — 

made from whole milk will lose in 2 

4 

Limburger or Remoudon — 

made from whole milk will lose in 2^ 

Brick cheese — 

made from skim-milk will lose in 2| 

Camembert, Brie, Neufchatel, etc. — 

made from whole milk will lose in 2 

Sour-milk cheese — 

made from whole milk will lose in 3^ 



12-25 

20-28 

15-25 

5 
6-7 

16-28 

15-30 

20-35 

50-60 



264 



DAIRYIKG. 




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fT\ 


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nr 


CO 


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N(N 

(SCO 


•♦00 VO CO 00 OS 

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mio 

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MOO 


ts (N ■♦ 
r<lO ■♦ 


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N !0 •♦!!* VO t- 00 CO M 00 rO 

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oo •♦oo ■♦00 ■♦Xi •♦00 ■♦X •♦» •♦« ■♦OS mos mos mos m 



fe C "3 



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CHEESE. 265 



•"sl ^ ^' ■^ -*"'*•'*• '»«' O us «0 «o" lO lO to ts to us o 



,-• iJ-,,-1 lOi-i u-)i-i ^ .-« VO C? vO C» ^ T» VO OJ \0 ff* VO 0» »0 CJ t^CO t^M r-~00 t^^ t^CO t^CO t^'^ t^ 



ri m — lOi-H mT- vot-i\c — voo*vo3*vow\ow>oiN'C(?j t^o-j t^eo t^M t^eo t^co r-ec t-»co t^ 



O m»-i ^T-> iD'- vot-ivo — \O»-ivoWvO(NV00l\OWvO©« t>.w l^W tN.co r-P3 t^oo t^oc t^cc t^ I 



O mo lOi-H lOi-H >0'>-i\OT-(vO'-">o»-ivo'r<voc«vo(Mvoc*voi?* rvO* t^eo »vec r^io t^oo t~e>3 t^ 



o "lO i/^>— lO'-H »j-,T-i o»-'VO'-'"0'r-ivo«-ivo!?j\0(Nvo«vooi t--w tv(N t^ec t^eo t^eo t«-c<5 tv 



O mO lOO m— vn»-i vO'i-h\0'-<'Ot-(\c<-iV0'-''O0J'O?}v00J tvw r-.5? t^cj t^W t^cC' t^co t~» 



r O mO mo mi-1 ^0.-iVO^-<^0'-•>0^-l\0^-■>0'-'VOW^ff» t^W tvTJ t^W t^-W t^CC t^CO t^ 



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eo mrr t^?o oo t- oos o O >- o* rcco rt-m m:o >o oc t>-05 o^i-i so ►< -^ « »n ■><-i- mos vo O t~ 

o mo mo mo mo vo»-ivOT-ivoi-ivOT-cvO'rt\o.-ivD.-ivo(rj r~o? t^CJ t^w t»-<N t^'M t^eo t^ 



O «no mo mo mo voo^^-cvO'-'voi-i^.— vOt-ivOi—vow t^-w t^(r» mn t^oj t^©j t~-c» t^ 



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05 mO mo iriO mo ^O^O o^"— ^i— 1\0 — ^'-^— "0>-i t^T? t^'?> t^T? i-^T? t^W t~- 



eO'*»O«l>-0OOS©»H(MCO'*iO®t*ODCi© 
^^^^^^«4iiOtOtO>OtOtOOuJtOtCV 



266 



DAIRYIKG. 



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t,- "5 



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u ,> 

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Green 
Blue 

Blue 

Blue 
White 

Green 
Blue 


pauadi^ 


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CHEESE. 



267 



WHEY TO BE ALLOWED AT CHEESE FACTORIES 
FOR QUANTITIES OF MILK FROM 30 TO 360 
POUNDS. (Robertson.) 

The figures in the columns denote the inches of whey. 



Weight of 




Diameters of Milk-cans in Inches. 






Milk in 
Pounds. 
















20 


19 


18 


17 


16 


15 


14 


13 


12 


30 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 


35 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


40 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


45 


3 


4 


4 


4 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


50 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


55 


4 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


60 


4 


5 


5 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


II 


65 


4 


5 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


70 


5 


5 


6 


7 


7 


8 


10 


II 


13 


75 


5 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


14 


80 


5 


6 


7 


8 


8 


10 


11 


12 


15 


85 


6 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


13 


16 


90 


6 


7 


7 


9 


9 


II 


12 


14 


17 


95 


6 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


13 


15 


18 


100 


7 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


14 


16 


19 


105 


7 


8 


9 


9 


II 


13 


'5 


16 


19 


no 


7 


8 


9 


10 


II 


13 


IS 


17 


20 


"5 


8 


9 


10 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


21 


120 


8 


9 


10 


II 


12 


14 


17 


19 


22 


125 


8 


9 


10 


II 


13 


15 


17 


19 


23 


130 


9 


10 


II 


12 


13 


16 


18 


20 


24 


135 


9 


10 


II 


12 


14 


16 


19 


21 




140 


9 


10 


12 


13 


14 


17 


20 


22 




145 


10 


II 


12 


13 


IS 


17 


20 


23 




150 


10 


II 


12 


14 


15 


18 


21 


24 




155 


10 


II 


13 


15 


16 


19 


22 






160 


II 


12 


13 


15 


16 


19 


22 






i6s 


II 


12 


14 


16 


17 


20 


23 






170 


II 


12 


14 


16 


17 


20 


23 






175 


12 


13 


15 


16 


18 


21 


24 






180 


12 


13 


15 


17 


18 


22 


24 






185 


12 


14 


15 


^7 


19 


22 








190 


13 


14 


i6 


18 


19 


23 








195 


13 


M 


16 


18 


20 


23 








200 


13 


15 


17 


18 


20 


24 








205 


14 


15 


17 


19 


21 










210 


14 


t6 


18 


^9 


21 










215 


14 


16 


18 


20 


22 










220 


15 


16 


18 


20 


23 










225 


15 


17 


19 


21 


24 










230 


15 


17 


19 


21 


24 










235 


16 


18 


19 


22 












240 


16 


18 


20 


22 












245 


16 


18 


20 


23 












250 


17 


19 


21 


23 












260 


17 


19 


22 


24 












270 


18 


20 


22 














280 


19 


21 


23 














290 


19 


22 


24 














300 


20 


23 


24 














310 


21 


23 
















320 


21 


24 
















330 


22 


















340 


23 


















350 


23 


















360 


24 



















268 DAIEYING. 



VI. MANAGEMENT OF CREAMERIES AND 
CHEESE FACTORIES. 

PAYMENT OF MILK AT CREAMERIES AND 
CHEESE FACTORIES. 

Numerous systematic and extensive experiments by vari- 
ous scientists have proved that the value of milk for both 
butter and cheese production stands in direct proportion to 
its fat content. Patrons of separator cheese and butter 
factories should therefore receive payment for the milk de- 
livered by them according to the percentage of fat in the 
milk, i.e., according to the quantity of fat delivered in their 
milk. The same applies to gathered-cream factories as 
well. 

The tables given on pp. 271-72 will aid in the calculation 
of the value of milks of different richness, according to 
prices agreed upon. In paying for the milk delivered by 
patrons, four, or, essentially, three, different methods are 
followed at different factories, all of which are just to all 
parties concerned. The methods and the directions for 
using the tables in each case are given below. The tables 
and discussions entered upon are largely taken from Ver- 
mont Experiment Station Bulletin No. 16. 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 269 

METHODS OF PAYMENT FOR MILK AT CHEESE 
AND BUTTER FACTORIES. 

1. A certain price is to be paid per one hundred lbs. of milk 
containittg a definite per cent of fat (e.g., $i.oo per lOO lbs. 
of four per cent milk). By referring to the second half of 
the table on p. 271 we find $1.00 opposite 4.00 per cent of 
fat; the figures in the same column as $1.00 then give the 
value of 100 lbs. of milk containing percentages of fat rang- 
ing from 3.00 to 5.00; e.g., 100 lbs. of 3 per cent milk is 
worth 75 cents, of 4.5 per cent milk $1.13. of 5.40 per cent 
milk $1.35, etc. 

2. A certain price is to be paid per pound of fat delivered. 
If 21 cents is the price agreed upon we multiply .21 by three, 
and the product, .63, gives the amount in dollars to be paid 
per 100 lbs. of three per cent milk. The column in which 
the figure .63 occurs opposite 3.0 per ct. is then to be used 
in the calculations as long as the price is paid, and 3.5 per 
cent milk will be paid with 73 cents per 100 lbs., 5.3 per ct. 
milk $1.10 per 100 lbs., etc. 

Example : Patron A delivers 840 lbs. of milk during one 
week, containing, according to the test made, 4.3 per cent 
fat. If the price agreed upon per pound of fat was as be- 
fore stated, he is to receive 90 cents per 100 lbs. of milk, or 
$7.56 in all. 

Patron B, sending 625 lbs. of milk testing 3.45 per cent, 
will receive 6.25 X .72 = $4.50, etc. In the table only 
tenths of per cents are given; 3.45 being half-way between 
3.40 and 3.50, for which percentages 71 and 73 cents are to 
be paid respectively, we multiply by the mean of the two 
values, or .72. If a test differs less than five-hundredths 
from any percentages given in the table, the nearest figure 
is chosen. 

3. Patrons are to be paid what is received for the butter, less 
a certain amount for cost of making and marketing. Multiply 
each man's milk by the per cent of fat it contains, and the 
sum of the several products will be the total amount of fat 
contained in the day's milk. Divide the pounds of butter 
made from the milk by the pounds of fat it contained, to 



270 DAIRYING. 

find how much butter each pound of fat makes. Multiply- 
ing the amount received per pound of butter, less the cost 
of making, etc., by this last result will give the amount to 
be paid for each pound of fat delivered. 

Example : Suppose the patrons furnish milk containing 
in all 400 lbs. of fat, which made 460 lbs. of buiter, selling 
for 27 cents per pound. The expense of making the butter 
is found to be, e.g., 4 cents per pound. 27-4= 23 cents; 
460 divided by 400 equals 1.15; 23 multiplied by 1.15 equals 
26.45, which is the amount, in cents, to be paid per pound 
of fat delivered; 26.45 X 3 = 79-35, or nearest 79 cents, is 
then the money to be paid for 100 lbs. of 3 per cent milk, 
and (see table) 90 cents for 100 lbs. of 3.40 per cent milk, 
$1.24 for 100 lbs. of 4.7 per cent milk, etc. 

4. A certaht price is to be paid per lOO lbs. of i7iilk of average 
quality. Find the total fat contained in the milk as before; 
divide this amount by the total weight of milk delivered, 
and the result will be the average per cent of fat in the 
milk. Starting from this per cent at the left of the table, 
go to the right until the price per 100 lbs. agreed upon is 
reached; the perpendicular column in which this figure is 
found is the one to be used. Example: Suppose milk of 
average quality is to be paid $1.00 per hundred pounds, 
and the farmers furnish 8500 lbs. of milk, containing in all 
440 lbs. of fat; 440 divided by 85.00 then equals 5.18, the 
number nearest to which in the table is 5.20 per cent. To 
the right of 5.20 per cent $1.00 is found in the column 
headed .58, which column would be the one to use. 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 



271 



PRICE OF MILK OF DIFFERENT RICHNESS PER 
100 POUNDS. 



P. ct 






















Fat. 


Price per 100 lbs. of Milk 


, in dollars and cents. 




3.00 


1. 00 


•97 


•94 


.91 


.88 


.86 


•83 


.8t 


•79 


•77 


3.10 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


■94 


.91 


.89 


.86 


•84 


.82 


•79 


3.20 


1.07 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


94 


• 91 


.89 


.86 


•85 


.82 


3- 30 


1. 10 


1.07 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


•94 


.92 


.89 


.87 


.84 


340 


I-I3 


1. 10 


1.06 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


•94 


.92 


.90 


•87 


350 


1.17 


1. 13 


1.09 


1.06 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


•95 


•93 


•89 


3.60 


1.20 


1. 16 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.06 


1.03 


1.00 


•97 


•95 


.92 


3-70 


1.23 


1.19 


1. 16 


1. 12 


I .og 


1.06 


1.03 


1 .00 


.98 


■94 


3.80 


1.27 


1.23 


1. 19 


I -15 


1. 12 


1 .09 


1 .06 


1.03 


1. 00 


•97 


3-90 


1.30 


1.26 


1.22 


1. 18 


1-15 


I. II 


1.08 


1.06 


1.03 


1 .00 


4.00 


1-33 


1.29 


1-25 


1.21 


1. 18 


1.14 


1 . 11 


1.08 


1.06 


1.02 


4.10 


1-37 


1.32 


1.28 


1.24 


1. 21 


1.17 


1. 14 


I. II 


1.08 


I •OS 


4.20 


1.40 


1-35 


I-3I 


1.27 


1.24 


1 .20 


1. 17 


1.14 


1 .11 


1.07 


4-30 


1-43 


1-39 


1-34 


1.30 


1.26 


1.23 


1.19 


1. 17 


1. 14 


1. 10 


4.40 


1.47 


1.42 


1.38 


1-33 


1.29 


1.26 


1.22 


1.19 


1. 16 


1. 12 


4-50 


1.50 


1-45 


1. 41 


1.36 


1.32 


1.29 


1.25 


1 .22 


1. 19 


^•iS 


4.60 


1-53 


1.48 


1.44 


139 


1-35 


1-31 


1.28 


1.25 


1. 21 


1. 17 


4.70 


1-57 


1.52 


1.47 


1.42 


1.38 


1-34 


I-3I 


1.28 


1.24 


1 .20 


4.80 


1.60 


1-55 


1.50 


1-45 


1. 41 


1-37 


1-33 


1.30 


1.27 


1.23 


4.90 


1.63 


1.58 


1-53 


1.48 


1.44 


1.40 


1.36 


I 33 


1.29 


^•25 


S-oo 


1.67 


1. 61 


1.56 


1.52 


1.47 


143 


1-39 


1.36 


1.32 


1.28 


5.10 


1.70 


t.65 


1-59 


i^55 


1.50 


1 .46 


1.42 


1-39 


1^35 


1.30 


5.20 


1-73 


1.68 


1.63 


1.58 


1-53 


1.49 


1.44 


1. 41 


i^37 


1-33 


5-30 


1.77 


1. 71 


1.66 


1. 61 


1.56 


1-51 


1-47 


1.44 


1.40 


I 35 


5-4° 


1.80 


1.74 


1.69 


1.64 


1-59 


1-54 


1.50 


1.47 


1.42 


1.38 


5-50 


1.83 


1.77 


1.72 


1.67 


1.62 


1-57 


^•53 


1.50 


145 


1. 41 


5.60 


1.87 


1. 81 


'•75 


1.70 


1.65 


1.60 


1.56 


1^52 


1.48 


1.44 


570 


I. go 


1.84 


1.78 


I 73 


1.68 


1.63 


1.58 


1-55 


I •SO 


1.46 


5.80 


1-93 


1.87 


i.8i 


1.76 


1. 71 


1.66 


1. 61 


1-57 


^•53 


1.49 


5-90 


1.97 


1.90 


1.84 


1.79 


1.74 


1.69 


1.64 


1.60 


1.56 


I-5I 


6.00 


2.00 


1.94 


1.88 


1.82 


1.76 


1. 71 


1.67 


1.62 


i^58 


154 



3.00 


•75 


•73 


•71 


.70 


.68 


.67 


•65 


.64 


•63 


.61 


3.10 


.78 


•75 


•73 


.72 


.70 


.6g 


.67 


.66 


•65 


•63 


3.20 


.80 


•78 


.76 


•75 


•73 


•71 


.69 


.68 


.67 


•65 


3-30 


.83 


.80 


•78 


•77 


•75 


•74 


.72 


.70 


.69 


.67 


3^40 


•85 


.83 


.81 


•79 


•77 


.76 


•74 


•73 


•71 


.69 


3 SO 


.88 


• 8s 


•83 


.82 


•79 


.78 


.76 


•75 


•73 


•71 


3.60 


.90 


.88 


•85 


.84 


.82 


.80 


•78 


•77 


•75 


•73 


3^70 


•93 


.90 


.88 


.86 


.84 


•83 


.80 


•79 


•77 


•75 


3.80 


•95 


•93 


•90 


.89 


.86 


■85 


.82 


.81 


.80 


•77 


3-90 


.98 


•95 


.92 


.91 


.88 


• 87 


•85 


•83 


.82 


•79 


4.00 


1 .00 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.91 


.8g 


•87 


.85 


.84 


.81 


4. 10 


1.03 


1 .00 


•97 


•96 


•93 


.91 


.89 


.87 


.86 


•83 


4 20 


1.05 


1 .02 


1 .00 


.98 


•95 


•94 


.gi 


.90 


.88 


•85 


4^30 


1.08 


1.05 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


.96 


•93 


.92 


.90 


.88 


4.40 


1. 10 


1.07 


1.05 


1.02 


1 .00 


.98 


•95 


•94 


.92 


.90 



272 DAIRYING. 

PRICE OF MILK PER 100 rOV^DS.— Co/tfinued. 



P.ct. 
Fat. 




Price per 


[oo lbs. 


of Milk, in dollars and cents. 




4-50 


I 13 


1. 10 


1.07 


1.05 


1.02 


1. 00 


•97 


.96 


•94 


.92 


4.60 


I 15 


1. 12 


1. 10 


I 07 


1.05 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


.96 


•94 


4.70 


1. 18 


115 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.07 


I 04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


.96 


4.80 


1.20 


1. 17 


1. 14 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.07 


1.07 


1.02 


1 .00 


.98 


4.90 


1.23 


1.20 


1. 17 


1.14 


1. 11 


1.09 


1.07 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


5.00 


1.25 


1.22 


1. 19 


1. 16 


1. 14 


I. II 


1.09 


1.06 


1.04 


1.02 


S-io 


1.28 


1.24 


1. 21 


1. 19 


t.i6 


113 


1. 11 


1.09 


1.06 


1.04 


5.20 


1.30 


1.27 


1.24 


1. 21 


1. 18 


1. 16 


1-13 


I. II 


1.08 


1.06 


5-30 


1-33 


T.29 


1.26 


1.23 


1 .20 


1. 18 


115 


1-13 


1. 10 


1.08 


5-40 


1-35 


1.32 


1.29 


1.26 


1.23 


1.20 


1.17 


i 15 


1. 12 


1. 10 


550 


1.38 


1-34 


I-3I 


1.28 


1.25 


1.22 


1.20 


1.17 


1. 14 


1. 12 


5.60 


1.40 


1-37 


1.34 


1.30 


1.27 


1.24 


1.22 


I 19 


1. 17 


1. 14 


5-70 


1-43 


1-39 


1.36 


1-33 


1.30 


1.27 


T.24 


1. 21 


1. 19 


1. 16 


5.80 


1-45 


1. 41 


1-39 


1-35 


1.32 


1.29 


1.26 


1.23 


1. 21 


1. 18 


590 


1.48 


1.44 


1. 41 


1.38 


1-34 


I-3I 


1.28 


1.26 


1.23 


1.20 


6.00 


1.50 


1.4b 


1-43 


1 .40 


i.3«> 


1-33 


1.30 


1.28 


1.25 


1.22 



3-00 


.60 


•59 


•58 


•57 


.56 


•55 


•54 


•53 


•52 


•51 


•50 


3.10 


.62 


.61 


.60 


•59 


•58 


•57 


•56 


•55 


•54 


•53 


•52 


3.20 


.64 


•63 


.62 


.61 


.60 


•59 


•58 


•57 


•55 


•54 


•53 


3^3o 


.66 


•65 


.64 


•63 


.62 


.60 


•59 


•58 


■57 


•56 


•55 


340 


.68 


.67 


.66 


•65 


•63 


.62 


.61 


.60 


•59 


•58 


•57 


3^50 


.70 


.69 


.68 


.66 


•65 


.64 


.63 


.62 


.61 


•59 


58 


3.60 


.72 


•71 


.70 


.68 


.67 


.66 


65 


.64 


.62 


.61 


.60 


3-70 


•74 


•73 


•71 


.70 


.69 


.68 


.67 


•65 


.64 


•63 


.62 


3.80 


.76 


•75 


•73 


.72 


•71 


.70 


.68 


.67 


.66 


•65 


.63 


3.90 


.78 


•77 


•75 


•74 


•73 


•71 


.70 


.69 


.67 


.66 


•65 


4.00 


.80 


•79 


•77 


.76 


•75 


•73 


.72 


•71 


.69 


.68 


.67 


4.10 


.82 


.81 


•79 


.78 


.76 


•75 


•74 


.72 


•71 


.70 


.68 


4.20 


.84 


•83 


.81 


.80 


•78 


■77 


•75 


•74 


•73 


•71 


.70 


4-30 


.86 


.84 


•83 


.82 


.80 


•79 


•77 


.76 


•74 


•73 


.72 


4.40 


.88 


.86 


•85 


•83 


.82 


.80 


•79 


.78 


.76 


•75 


•73 


4^50 


.90 


.88 


.87 


•85 


.84 


.82 


.81 


•79 


•79 


.76 


•75 


4.60 


.92 


.90 


.89 


•87 


.86 


.84 


•83 


.81 


.80 


.78 


■77 


4.70 


•94 


.92 


.91 


.89 


.88 


.86 


.84 


•83 


.81 


.80 


.78 


4.80 


.96 


•94 


•93 


•91 


.90 


.88 


.86 


•85 


.83 


.81 


.80 


4.90 


.98 


.96 


•94 


•93 


.91 


.90 


.88 


.86 


•85 


•83 


.82 


S^oo 


1. 00 


.98 


.96 


•95 


•93 


.91 


.90 


88 


.86 


.85 


.83 


5-IO 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


•96 


•95 


•93 


.92 


.90 


.88 


.86 


•85 


5.20 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.92 


.90 


.88 


.87 


S-30 


1.06 


1.04 


I 02 


1. 00 


•99 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.92 


.90 


.88 


540 


1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


•99 


■97 


•95 


•93 


.92 


.90 


5^5o 


1. 10 


1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


•99 


•97 


•95 


•93 


.92 


5.60 


1. 12 


1. 10 


1.08 


1.06 


1.04 


1. 03 


1 .00 . 


.98 


•97 


•95 


•93 


5^70 


1. 14 


1. 12 


1. 10 


1.08 


1 .06 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


•97 


95 


5 •So 


1. 16 


1. 14 


1. 12 


1.09 


1.07 


1.05 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


•97 


5-9° 


1. 18 


1. 16 


I •IS 


I. II 


1.09 


1.07 


1.05 


1.04 


1.02 


1. 00 


.98 


6.00 


1.20 


1.18 


^•iS 


^•i3 


I. II 


1.09 


1.07 


I. OS 


1.03 


1.02 


I, (XX 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 273 

DIRECTIONS FOR MAKING DIVIDENDS IN 
CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES 

According to the Per Cent of Fat in 3Iilk Delivered. 

(S. M. Babcock, in " Hoard's Dairyman.") 

Find the amount of fat contained in the milk of each 
patron for any period desired, by multiplying the pounds 
of milk expressed in hundreds by the per cent of fat found 
by the test. Add together the amount of fat from all the 
patrons, thus obtaining the total pounds of fat delivered at 
the factory. Deduct the expenses of manufacture, etc., 
from the money received from sales, and divide the re- 
mainder by the total fat. This gives the price to be paid 
for each pound of fat. Multiply the pounds of fat de- 
livered by each patron by the price; the product will be 
the amount which he is to receive. 

If it is desired to know the number of pounds of butter 
made from each patron's milk, divide the total yield of but- 
ter by the total fat delivered; the quotient will be the 
amount of butter made from one pound of fat. The fat 
delivered by each patron multiplied by this figure will give 
the pounds of butter to be credited to each patron. 

The accompanying table gives the butter yield from loo 
lbs. of milk, when the pounds of butter from one pound of 
fat range from i.io to 1.20, and for milks containing from 
3 to 6 per cent of fat. To use the table find in the upper 
horizontal line the number corresponding most nearly to the 
number of pounds of butter from one pound of fat. The 
vertical column in which this falls gives the pounds of 
butter from 100 pounds of milk containing the per cents of 
fat given in the outside columns. 

Example : A creamery receives during one month 250,000 
lbs. of milk, which contained 9531 lbs. of fat; the yield of 
butter for the same period was 10,983 lbs., which sold for 
29 cents per pound, bringing $3185.07. The expense for 
making, etc., was four cents per pound, amounting to 
$439.32, leaving $2745.75 to be divided among the patrons. 
Dividing this sum by 9531, the total number of pounds of 
fat gives 28.8 cents per pound for the fat. This multiplied 
by the number of pounds of fat in each patron's milk give?, 
the amount which he should be paid. 



274 



DAIRYING. 



The number of pounds of butter, 10,983, divided by 9531, 
the number of pounds of fat, gives 1.152 pounds of butter 
from each pound of fat. The column headed 1.15 in the 
table is nearest to this ratio, and will therefore give the 
butter obtained from 100 lbs. of milk containing different 
per cents of fat. 

If a patron delivered 9420 lbs. of milk containing 3.2 per 
cent of fat during the period considered, his milk would 
have contained 301.44 lbs. of fat, which at 28.8 cents per 
pound would have amounted to $86.81. It would have 
made 301.44 X 1.152 = 347.26 lbs. of butter. In the column 
headed 1.15 in the table, opposite 3.2 per cent of fat, we 
find 3.68, which is the number of pounds of fat from 100 
lbs. of this patron's milk. The error from the use of the 
table in this way will never amount to more than i ounce 
per 100 lbs. of milk. 

Yield of Butter froju One Hundred Lbs. of Milk, in Lbs. 



c 


Lbs. 0'' I3utter per Pound of Fat. 


4-> 

c 




1. 10 
3«3o 


I. II 


1. 12 


I-I3 


1. 14 


1-15 


1. 16 


1. 17 


1. 18 


1. 19 


1.20 
3.60 


£1, 


3-0 


3-33 


3.36 


3-39 


3-42 


3-45 


3-48 


3-51 


3-54 


3-57 


3-0 


3«i 


3-41 


3-441 


3-472 


3-503 


3-534 


3-565 


3-596 


3.627 


3-658 


3-689 


3-72 


3-1 


3'2 


3-52 


3-552 


3-584 


3.616 


3-648 


3.680 


3.712 


3-744 


3-776 


3.808 


3-84 


3-2 


3-3 


3.63 


3-663 


3.696 


3-729 


3-762 


3-795 


3.828 


3.861 


3-894 


3-927 


3-96 


3-3 


3-4 


3-74 


3-774 


3.808 


3.842 


3.876 


3.910 


3-944 


3-978 


4.012 


4.046 


4.08 


3-4 


3-5 


3.85 


3-885 


3-920 


3-955 


3-990 


4.025 


4.060 


4-095 


4-130 


4.165 


4.20 


3-5 


3.6 


3-96 


3-996 


4.032 


4.068 


4 104 


4.140 


4.176 


4.212 


4.248 


4.284 


4-32 


3-6 


3-7 


4.07 


4.107 


4.144 


4.181 


4.218 


4-255 


4.292 


4-329 


4.366 


4.403 


4-44 


3-7 


38 


4.18 


4.218 


4.256 


4.294 


4-332 


4-370 


4.408 


4.446 


4-484 


4-522 


4.56 


38 


3-9 


4.29 


4-329 


4-368 


4.407 


4-446 


4-485 


4-524 


4 563 


4.602 


4.641 


4.68 


3-9 


4.0 


4.40 


4.440 


4 480 


4-520 


4 560 


4.600 


4.640 


4.680 


4-720 


4.760 


4.80 


4.0 


4.1 


4-51 


4-551 


4-592 


4-633 


4.674 


4-715 


4-756 


4-797 


4.838 


4.87Q 


4-9* 


4.1 


4.2 


4.62 


4.662 


4.704 


4.746 


4.788 


4.830 


4.872 


4.914 


4-956 


4 998 


5-04 


4.2 


4-3 


4-73 


4 773 


4.816 


4-859 


4.902 


4-945 


4.988 


5-031 


5-074 


5-117 


5.16 


4 3 


4.4 


4.84 


4.884 


4.928 


4.972 


5.016 


5.060 


5.104 


5.148 


5.192 


5-236 


5.28 


4-4 


4-5 


4-95 


4-995 


5.040 


5-085 


5-130 


5-^75 


5.220 


5-265 


5-310 


5-355 


5-40 


^i 


4 6 


5.06 


5.106 


5-152 


5.198 


5-244 


5.290 


5-336 


5-382 


5.428 


5-474 


5-52 


4.6 


4-7 


5-17 


5-2t7 


5-264 


5-311 


5-358 


5-405 


5-452 


5-499 


5-546 


5-593 


5-64 


4 7 


4.8 


5.28 


5-328 


5-376 


5-424 


5-472 


5-520 


5-568 


5-616 


5-664 


5-712 


5-76 


4 8 


4.9 


5-39 


5-439 


5-488 


5-537 


5-586 


5-635 


5.684 


5-733 


5-782 


5-831 


5.88 


4.9 


5-0 


5-50 


5-550 


5.600 


5 650 


5.700 


5-750 


5.800 


5 850 


5-900 


5 950 


6.00 


5-0 


5-1 


5.61 


5.661 


5-712 


5-763 


5-814 


5.865 


5.916 


5-967 


6.018 


6.069 


6.12 


5-1 


5-2 


5 72 


5-772 


6.824 


5-876 


5.928 


5-980 


6.C32 


6.084 


6 136 


6.188 


6.24 


5-2 


5-3 


5-83 


5.883 


5-9.36 


5.986 


6.042 


6.095 


6.148 


6. 201 


6.254 


6.307 


6.36 


5-3 


5-4 


5-94 


5-994 


6.048 


6. 102 


6.156 


6.210 


6.264 


6 318 


6.372 


6.426 


6.48 


5-4 


5-5 


6.05 


6.105 


6.160 


6.215 


6-270 


6.325 


6.380 


6-435 


6.490 


6.545 


6.60 


5-5 


5-6 


6.16 


6.216 


6.272 


6.328 


6.384 


6.440 


6.496 


6-552 


6.608 


6.664 


6.72 


5-6 


5-7 


6.27 


6.327 


6.384 


6.441 


6 498 


7-555 


6 612 


6.669 


6.726 


6.783 


6 84 


5-7 


5-8 


6.38 


6.438 


6.496 


6.554 


6.612 


6.670 


6.72S 


6.786 


6.844 


6.902 


6.96 


5-8 


5-9 


6.49 


6.549 


6.608 


6.667 


6.726 


6.785 


6.844 


6.903 


6.962 


7 .021 


7.08 


5-9 


6.0 


6.60 


6.660 


6.720 


6.780 


6.840I 6.900I 6.96c 


7.020 


7.080 


7.140 


7.20 


6.0 



CHEESE. 



276 



TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE PEK CENT OF FAT 
IN 3HLiK. (Partly after Martiny.) 





Sum 0; 




4-> 

c 

V 

U 

1) ca 




Sum of 


a 

u 




Sum of 


c 
u 
















u ca 


U) 


ui 


(A 


CL,&H 


lA 


ui 


ec 


0:^ 


05 


<n 


tn 




Cfl 


S 




. S-t 


(/} 


tfl 


to 




</> 


U5 


in 


u 


<u 


V 


> 


<u 


W 


V 


< 


<u 


V 


u 


< 


H 


H 


H 


< 


H 


H 


H 


h 


h 


H 


m 


•"^ 


fO 




in 


■^ 


ro 


10 


•<1- 


CO 


14-50 


11.60 


8.70 


2 90 


16.50 


13.20 


9.90 


3.30 


18.50 


14.80 


II. 10 


3.70 


55 


64 


73 


91 


55 


24 


93 


31 


1 55 


84 


13 


71 


60 


68 


76 


92 


60 


28 


96 


32 


60 


88 


16 


72 


65 


72 


79 


93 


65 


32 


99 


33 


65 


92 


19 


73 


70 


76 


82 


94 


70 


36 


10.02 


34 


70 


96 


22 


74 


14 -75 


11.80 


8.85 


2 95 


16.75 


13.40 


10.05 


3.35 


18.75 


15.00 


11.25 


3.75 


80 


84 


88 


96 1 


80 


44 


08 


36 


80 


04 


28 


76 


85 


88 


91 


97, 


85 


48 


n 


37 


85 


08 


31 


77 


90 


92 


94 


98 


90 


52 


14 


38 


90 


12 


34 


78 


95 


96 


97 


99 


95 


56 


17 


39 


95 


16 


37 


79 


15.00 


12.00 


9.00 


3 00 


17.06 


13.60 


10.20 


3.40 


19.00 


15.20 


11.40 


3.80 


05 


04 


03 


01 


05 


64 


23 


41 


05 


24 


43 


81 


10 


08 


06 


02 


10 


68 


26 


42 


10 


28 


46 


82 


15 


12 


09 


03 


15 


72 


29 


43 


15 


32 


49 


83 


20 


16 


12 


04 


20 


76 


32 


44 


20 


.36 


52 


84 


15-25 


12.20 


9.15 


3.05 


17-25 


13.80 


IO-35 


3 45 


19.25 


15-40 


II 55 


3.85 


30 


24 


18 


06 


30 


84 


38 


46 


30 


44 


58 


86 


35 


28 


21 


07; 


35 


88 


41 


47 


35 


48 


61 


87 


40 


32 


24 


08 1 


40 


92 


44 


48 


40 


52 


64 


88 


45 


36 


27 


09; 


45 


96 


47 


49 


45 


56 


67 


89 


15-50 


12.40 


9-30 


3.10 


17-50 


14.00 


10.50 


3.50 


19-50 


15.60 


11.70 


3.90 


55 


44 


33 


II 


55 


04 


53 


51 


55 


64 


73 


91 


60 


48 


36 


12 


60 


08 


56 


52 


60 


68 


76 


92 


65 


52 


39 


13 


65 


12 


59 


53 


65 


72 


79 


93 


70 


56 


42 


14 


70 


16 


62 


54 


70 


76 


82 


94 


15-75 


12.60 


9-45 


3 I5I 


17-75 


14.20 


10.65 


3.55 


19-75 


15.80 


11.85 


3.95 


h 


64 


48 


i6| 


80 


24 


68 


56 


80 


84 


88 


96 


85 


68 


5^ 


17I 


85 


28 


71 


57 


85 


88 


!^I 


97 


P 


72 


54 


18 


90 


32 


74 


58 


90 


92 


94 


98 


P5 


76 


57 


19 


95 


36 


77 


59 


95 


96 


97 


99 


16.00 


12.80 


9.60 


3.20 


18 00 


14.40 


10.80 


3.60 


20.00 


16.00 


12.00 


4.00 


05 


84 


63 


21 


05 


44 


83 


6i 


05 


04 


03 


01 


10 


88 


66 


22 


10 


48 


86 


62 


10 


08 


06 


02 


15 


92 


69 


23 


15 


52 


89 


63 


15 


12 


09 


03 


20 


96 


72 


24 j 


20 


56 


92 


64 


20 


16 


12 


04 


16.25 


13.00 


9-75 


3.25' 


18.25 


14.60 


10.95 


3.65 


20.25 


16.20 


12.15 


4.05 


30 


04 


78 


26 


30 


64 


98 


66 


30 


24 


18 


06 


35 


08 


8t 


27 


35 


68 


11 .01 


67 


35 


28 


21 


07 


40 


12 


84 


28 


40 


72 


04 


68 


40 


32 


24 


08 


45 


16 


87 


29' 

i 


« 


76 


07 


69 


45 


36 


27 


09 



276 



DAIRYING. 



TABLE SHOWING AVERAGE PER CENT OF PAT 

IN MlLiK.—{Contifiued.) 



Sum of 



20.50 

55 
60 
6 
70 

20.75 
80 

85 
90 

95 

21.00 

05 
10 

15 
20 

21.25 
30 
35 
40 

45 

21.50 

55 
60 

65 
70 

21-75 
80 

85 
90 

95 

22.00 

05 
10 

15 
20 

22.25 
30 
35 
40 

45 



16.40 12.30 

44 33 
48 36 

52 39 
56 42 

16.60 12.45 
641 48 
68 51 
72 54 
76 57 



U 



4.10 



13 
14 

4 15 

16 

17 

18 

19 



16.80 12.60 4.20 
84! 63 
88 i 66 
92 1 69 

96 72 



17.00 12.75 
04 78 
08 81 
12 84 
16 87 



17.20 12.90 

24 93 

96 

99 



17.40 

44 
48 

52 

56 

17.60 
64 
68 
72 
76 

17.80 
84 

88 

92 
96 



13 02 



13-05 
08 



14 
17 

13.20 

23 
26 

29 
32 

13-35 
38 
41 
44 
47 



24 

4.25 

26 
27 
28 
29 

4.30 

31 
32 
33 
34 

4.35 

36 
37 
38 
39 

4.40 

41 
42 
43 
44 

4 45 

46 
47 
4^ 
49 



Sum of 



(A 


tn 
en 


u~> 


■* 


22. so 


18.00 


55 
60 


04 

08 


65 


12 


70 


16 


22.75 
80 
85 


18.20 

24 
28 


90 
95 


32 
36 


23.00 


18.40 


05 
10 


44 

48 


15 
20 


52 
56 


23 -5 
30 

35 


18.60 
64 
68 


40 
45 


72 
76 


23.50 

55 
60 


18.80 
84 
88 


65 
70 


92 

96 


23-75 
80 

85 


19.00 
04 
08 


90 
95 


12 
16 


24.00 


19.20 


05 
10 


24 
28 


15 
20 


3& 


24-25 


19.40 


30 
35 


44 
48 


40 

45 


52 
56 





^ 






c 






1) 






U • 
















c/s 


0-^ 




4) 


>■ 




13.50 4.60 




53 51 




56 


52 




59 


53 




62 


54 




13 65 4.55 




68 56 




71 57 




74 58 




77 59 




13.80 4.60 




83 61 




86 62 




89 63 




92 1 64 




13.95 4.65 




98 66 




t4.oi 


67 




04 


68 




07 


69 




14.10 


4 70 




'3; 


71 




16 


72 




19 


73 




22 


74 




14.25 4.75 




28 76 




31 77 




34 78 




37 79 

1 




14.40 4.80 




43 8i 




46 82 




49 83 




52: 84 




14-55 4-85 




58 86 




61 87 




64 88 




67, 


89 





Sum of 



i/i 


(A 


(A 








(A 


05 


as 


4; 


U 


<U 


H 


H 


h 


ITi 


■^ 


m 


24 50 


19.60 


14.70 


55 


64 


73 


60 


68 


76 


65 


72 


79 


70 


76 


82 


24-75 


19.80 


14-85 


80 


84 


88 


85 


88 


qi 


90 


92 


94 


95 


96 


97 


25.00 


20.00 


15.00 


05 


04 


03 


10 


08 


06 


15 


12 


09 


20 


16 


12 


25-25 


20.20 


1515 


30 


24 


18 


35 


28 


21 


40 


32 


24 


45 


36 


27 


25.50 


20.40 


15-30 


55 


44 


33 


60 


48 


36 


65 


52 


39 


70 


56 


42 


25-7S 


20.60 


15-45 


80 


64 


48 


85 


68 


51 


90 


72 


54 


95 


76 


57 


26.00 


20.80 


15.60 


05 


84 


63 


10 


88 


66 


15 


92 


69 


20 


96 


72 


26.25 


21.00 


15-75 


30 


04 


78 


35 


08 


81 


40 


12 


84 


45 


16 


87 



0.* 

."♦■< 

< 



4.90 

91 
92 
93 
94 

4.95 

96 

97 

98 

99 
6.00 



03 

04 

5.05 

c6 
07 
08 
09 

5 10 



5.15 

16 

17 
18 

19 
5.20 



23 
24 



26 

27 
28 

29 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACtORIES. 277 

SUGGESTIONS TO PATRONS OF CHEESE FAC- 
TORIES AND CREAMERIES. 

(D, W. Curtis, Sec'y Wisconsin Dairymen's Associatioa.) 

Care of Milk. 

1. All milk for the cheese factory must be clean, pure, 
and wholesome, or the cheese will be bad. One hundred 
pounds of bad milk will injure 10,000 pounds of good milk. 

2. The law is very strict against watering or skimming. 
A fine of $10.00 to $100.00 is imposed if convicted. 

3. After a cow has dropped her calf, the milk should not 
be taken to the factory until the tenth milking. 

4. Milk run through an aerator as soon as drawn from 
the cow, in open air, is better for cheese and butter making 
than when set in a tub of water and dipped. By any means 
at your command thoroughly air the milk until cooled. 

5. Stagnant water, dead carcasses, or filth of any kind in 
the pasture or barn-yard produces tainted milk. For this 
reason set the can of night's milk in a clean place. 

6. Milk with clean hands ; never wet them with milk; it 
is positively filthy. 

7. See that the cow's udder is brushed clean and free 
from fine dirt and dust before milking. 

8. Never mix the night's and morning's milk. It will 
many times sour them both by pouring the warm milk into 
the cold. 

9. Small cans (10 to 15 gallons) are much preferred to 
larger ones, as the milk is kept in a better condition. 

10. Whey should be taken home in separate cans from 
that in which the milk is brought in. 

11. If whey is taken home in the milk-cans, empty at 
once, wash with tepid water, then scald and turn them out 
to the sun. 

12. Insist that the cheese-maker keep the whey-vat clean, 
by washing and scalding at least twice a week. 

13. Insist that your factory shall take in milk by the 
Babcock test, paying each patron according to what he de* 
livers. 

14. Use a Babcock test yourself and know just what you 
produce; turn off the poor cows and fill their places with 



278 DAIRYING. 

good ones. Every patron should know for himself whether 
he is boarding unprofitable cows. There is no better way 
of knowing this than by the use of the Babcock test at the 
barn. The cost of the test is but little, but its instruction 
is very valuable. 

15. It should always be remembered that pure milk can 
only be had through healthy cows, pure feed, pure water, 
pure air, and cleanly handling. Every patron is affected 
in the cash outcome by the way his brother patrons pro- 
duce and handle their milk, hence the necessity of each 
adhering to sound rules based on sound dairy sense. There 
is not a first-class factory in the land where good prices are 
obtained for cheese but what the patrons practise thorough 
cleanliness in the care of milk. Remember, it is a matter 
of profit to each to do this. 

Care of Cows. 

Pay special attention to the comfort of your cows. Do 
not let them remain out in cold rain-storms ; it will reduce 
the flow of milk. Feed liberally. The cow must at all 
times have all the good feed she can eat and digest. Be 
sure and provide some soiling-crop against the July and 
August drought; if the cow shrinks then you will lose money 
in the fall, when butter and cheese are high. Oats and 
peas, sweet corn or field corn, drilled 3^ feet apart, are a 
good soiling-crop. 

A silo is a great help in the economical production of 
cow feed. Thousands of successful dairymen have proved 
this. It is no longer an experiment. 

Dairy farming at high profit calls for close study con- 
cerning the cow, concerning her feed, and how to produce 
it at the best and cheapest. Every dairy neighborhood 
will show men who make nearly double the profit from the 
business that others do. We believe that it will pay every 
man to be intelligent and as well posted as he can be on these 
"important questions. We must bring up the grade of our 
reputation by making better butter and cheese. This will 
bring on a larger and better paying demand. To cheat the 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 279 

consumer with poor goods will, in the end, destroy the 
business. Better dairymen, better milk, better products, 
better reputation in the world's markets, will surely bring 
better profits, and is the only true road to Dairy Success. 

BY-LiAWS AND RULES FOR CO-OPERATIVE 
CREAMERY ASSOCIATIONS. 

I. This association shall be known as the Co- 
operative Creamery Association. 

II. The purpose of the association shall be to locate, 
establish and carry on the manufacture and sale of milk 
products, in such a manner as will conduce to the greatest 
convenience and profit of the producers over the greatest 

amount of territory in the town of and vicinity. Also 

to purchase, use, and hold real and personal estate neces- 
sary for the transaction of the business of the association. 

III. The capital stock of the association shall be 

dollars, divided into shares of ten dollars each. 

IV. This association shall be co-operative. Cream and 
milk may be purchased or accepted from any person not a 
stockholder on the same terms and conditions as may be 
prescribed for stockholders. 

V. Any person directly engaged in agricultural pursuits 
may become a member of this association by taking one or 
more shares of the stock of the association. 

VI. I. The regular meetings of the association shall be 

held semi-annually, viz., on the first Mondays in and 

in each year, at such time and place as the board 

of directors may determine; and notice of such meeting 
shall be given by the clerk to each member by mail seven 
days at least previous to the date of said meeting. 2. 
Special meetings may be called either by the president, 
with the advice and consent of a majority of the directors, 
or upon written request of one third of the stockholders of 
the association, upon seven days' notice as above. 3. 
Meetings of the board of directors may be called by the 
president or by any two directors. 

VII. I. The officers of the association shall consist of a 
president, clerk, treasurer, five directors, and two auditors. 
2. The president shall be chosen annually by the board of 



^80 DAIRYING. 

directors, by written ballot, at the regular meeting in 
October. 3. The clerk, treasurer, board of directors, and 
auditors shall be chosen by the stockholders annually, by 
written ballot, at the regular meeting in October, and all 
officers shall hold office till others are chosen and qualified 
in their stead. Vacancies in the above-named offices may 
be filled at any meeting of the stockholders ; in the mean- 
time by the board of directors. In case of the absence of 
the clerk a temporary clerk may be chosen and qualified 
in his stead. 

VIII. At any regularly called meeting of the association, 
nine of the members thereof, and at any meeting of the 
board of directors, three members thereof, shall constitute 
a quorum for the transaction of business. A less number 
may adjourn from time to time. 

IX. It shall be the duty of the president, who shall be a 
director, to preside at all meetings of the association and of 
the board of directors, preserve order therein, put all ques- 
tions, announce all decisions, and, in case of an equal divi- 
sion, to give the casting vote. He shall receive and safely 
preserve all bonds required of the officers of the associa- 
tion and sign all certificates or documents issued by the 
association or board of directors. In the absence of the 
president, it shall be the duty of one of the board of direc- 
tors, in order of their seniority, to preside at any meeting. 

X. It shall be the duty of the clerk to attend all meet- 
ings of the association and of the board of directors, and 
to keep a correct record of the same, which record shall be 
open for the inspection of any member. He shall give 
notice of all meetings and of all appointments on commit- 
tees, to each member thereof, and to each officer chosen, of 
his election; and shall serve all such other notices as ap- 
pertain to his office or as may be directed from time to time 
by the association or board of directors. He shall attest 
all certificates or documents issued signed by the president, 
shall file all bills and reports and such other documents as 
may be ordered to be filed, and shall carry on all such 
correspondence as may be directed ; shall act as secretary 
of all committees when called upon; shall keep a correct 



» 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 281 

financial account between the association and its members, 
and shall have charge of all property not otherwise disposed 
of. He shall give such bonds for the faithful performance 
of his duty, and receive such compensation for his services, 
as the board of directors may determine. 

XI. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to receive all 
money belonging to the association, giving his receipt 
therefor. He shall draw all money for the payment of 
claims against the association under the direction of the 
board of directors. He shall make a report to the board of 
directors at such times as they may require. He shall per- 
form all duties required of him by the laws of the common- 
wealth and shall give such bonds for the faithful perform- 
ance of his duty as the board of directors may require. 

XII. It shall be the duty of the board of directors to 
attend to the general affairs of the association, invest the 
funds of the same, appoint such other agents and officers 
as in their judgment the interests of the association require, 
and fix all compensations. They shall keep or cause to be 
kept a correct account of all cream or milk furnished by 
the stockholders or patrons, and a correct account of all 
sales. They shall prescribe the rules and regulations 
governing the collection and delivery of the cream and 
milk; may cause the quality of the same to be tested as 
often as may be deemed expedient; may authorize the prem- 
ises of any stockholder or patron to be inspected, and 
may reject and refuse to collect or receive any cream or 
milk that is unsatisfactory or not furnished in compliance 
with the prescribed regulations. They shall establish 
prices and have full power over the business of the associa- 
tion, and shall in all cases pursue such measures as in their 
judgment will tend to the best interests of the association. 
They shall make a full report of their doings, and a full 
statement of the business at each regular meeting, or 
whenever called upon to do so by vote of the stockholders. 

XIII. The duties of the auditors shall be to audit all 
accounts of the association, making a report to the board 
of directors at the time of the regular meetings, and at such 
other times as they may require. 



282 DAIRYING. 

XIV. The net profits of the business of the association, 
after such deductions have been made as the laws of the 
commonwealth require, shall be divided pro rata among the 
stockholders, according to the number of shares held by 
each. \Note. — It is understood that the profits shall not 
exceed 6 per cent on capital, all receipts in excess of this 
sum and necessary reserves being declared in paymeijt to 
patrons for cream or milk furnished.] 

XV. I. Any person doing business for the association or 
incurring expense therefor shall receive a just remunera- 
tion for such services or expense. 2. All documents issued 
by the association shall bear the seal thereof, said seal to 
be in charge of the clerk. 3. The directors shall procure 
a corporate seal. 4. No member of the association can 
transfer his stock to any person not directly engaged in 
agricultural pursuits. 5. In case shares are transferred by 
one person to another, the certificate thereof must be sur- 
rendered to the treasurer, and the board of directors shall 
cause another certificate to be issued to the person to whom 
the transfer is made. 

XVI. These by-laws shall not be altered or amended unless 
such alteration or amendment be proposed in writing one 
meeting previous to action being taken ; provided also that 
two thirds of the members vote in the affirmative. 

BY-LAWS AND RULES FOR CO-OPERATIVE 
CHEESE FACTORIES. 

Article i. This association shall be known as the — — — 
Cheese Factory Association. 

Art. 2. There shall be two meetings held yearly at the 
factory — one in the spring and one in the fall or winter, to be 
called by the president. 

Art. 3. At the first meeting in each year there shall be 
chosen by the patrons a president and a treasurer and sales- 
man. 

Art. 4. The salesman and treasurer shall sell all the cheese, 
and as soon as he shall have sold and collected for one month's 
make of cheese, he shall, after paying the proprietor for mak- 



CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 283 

ing and deducting the other expenses, divide the proceeds pro 
rata, according to the amount of butter-fat delivered by each 
patron, as determined by the Babcock test. 

Art. 5. It shall also be the duty of the treasurer and sales- 
man to keep the books of the association, and make final divi- 
dend yearly to all the patrons whenever all the cheese is sold 
and paid for. He shall also keep a milk book, showing the 
number and amount of cheese made each month, to be taken 
from the factory's books. Said treasurer's milk and cheese 
books shall be subject to the inspection of the patrons and tne 
president. 

Art. 6. The manager shall keep an accurate account with 
each patron of the number of pounds of milk delivered each 
day and make and record daily (every week or month) tests of 
same to show its fat content; also an account of the number and 
amount of cheese made, which accounts shall be subject to the 
inspection of the officers and patrons. 

Art. 7. The president shall be authorized to preside over 
the entire transactions of patrons or officers, and constitute a 
committee to investigate all matters pertaining to said factory, 
and if any contingency should arise, he shall be authorized to 
bring suit in law against any delinquent. 

Art. 8. The manager (cheese-maker) shall be authorized to 
criticise all milk offered, and he shall reject the same if in his 
judgment said milk is unfit to run into cheese; also to deter- 
mine the fat content o"f any milk, and if found to be below the 
legal standard of the State, shall report the same to the presi- 
dent, whose duty it shall be to send out a committee of three to 
the premises of said delinquent, witnessing the transit of the 
milk on the ensuing day from the cow to the factory, which 
shall again be tested as on the previous day, and if found to 
vary, the party in question shall be adjudged guilty of having 
diluted or adulterated the same, as shall appear, and shall forfeit 
and pay to the association as liquidated damages the sum of 
twenty-five dollars for each and every day such dilution shall 
occur. 

Art. 9. The president shall also have power to call special 
meetings of the patrons at any time he may deem it necessary, 
and he shall be required to call a meeting of the patrons when- 



284 DAIRYING. 

ever a request is presented to him signed by ten patrons. 
Whenever a meeting is to be called, the president shall give 
patrons at least two days' notice. 

Art. 10. The action of the treasurer and salesman in regard 
to selling or holding cheese shall be governed by a vote of a 
majority of the patrons. If no vote is taken, he is to exercise 
his best judgment in the matter. 

Art. II. In voting at any annual or special meeting of this 
association the patrons shall be allowed one vote for every cow 
the milk of which is brought to the factory. [This may be 
altered to one vote on each share of the capital stock or one 
vote to each shareholder.] 

Art. 12. The treasurer and salesman shall attend all meet- 
ings of the association whenever possible, and shall take min- 
utes of the proceedings, and place the same on file in his office, 
and in other respects act as secretary. In case he should be 
absent, a temporary secretary may be chosen. In case the 
president is absent at any meeting, a temporary president may 
be chosen for a presiding officer. 

RULES FOR PATRONS AND INSTRUCTIONS TO 
CREAM OR MILK GATHERERS. 

These rules may be made to ?pply to either whole-milk or gathered- 
cream creameries. 

Feeding. — We insist upon only such food being fed to cows 
as will produce the largest and best quality of milk or cream. 
Turnips, onions, cabbage, or anything likely to injure the 
quality of milk, cream, or butter is prohibited. 

Milking. — Cows must be carefully cleaned before milking, 
to avoid odors that taint the milk. The milk must be strained 
through two strainers — one of them cloth — before going into 
the cans. Thorough cleanliness must be observed in every- 
thing. 

Creamers and Cans. — Creamers must be kept in a place free 
from odors, and cleanliness maintained in their vicinity Tanks 
and cans must be kept sweet and clean, and the water free and 
clear. Cans must be washed, then scalded every time they are 
used. The water in the creamers should not go below 45 dei- 
grees in sumiper and 40 degrees in winter, 




CREAMERIES AND CHEESE FACTORIES. 285 

Settins^ Milk. — All cans must be filled full of fresh milk, so 
far as possible, and immediately placed in the tank. After cans 
are set in water ihey must not be disturbed. Patrons are not 
allowed to draw off the milk except on Sundays, or with per- 
mission from the trustees. 

Mixing Milk. — Cans must not be partly filled at one milking 
and after standing long enough for the cream to begin to sepa- 
rate be filled with milk from another milking, or with anything 
whatever. After a can has once been set it must not in any 
way bfe disturbed or meddled with, nor the milk drawn off by 
the patrons, except on Sunday. 

Night's Milk. — When milk is delivered but once each day, 
the cans containing the night's milk must be set in cold water 
immediately after milking and the milk thoroughly stirred by 
using a dipper and pouring until the milk is thoroughly cooled. 
A better plan is to use a cooler to thoroughly cool and aerate 
the milk before it is put in the cans. The night's milk must be 
left setting in cold water until it is hauled to the creamery. 

Cream and Milk Gatherers. — Cream and milk gatherers are 
forbidden to take any cream or milk which is dirty, or for any 
reason, in their judgment, is not of satisfactory quality or con- 
dition, or which has been in any way so treated as to indicate 
that an attempt has been made to interfere with the proper and 
natural separation of the cream, or of iis being correctly counted 
on the gauge, or in violation of these rules. 

Any patron found neglecting or violating any of these rules 
must at once be reported to some one of the board of trustees 
or directors, and his cream or milk must not again be taken till 
he has satisfied the trustees that his neglect was, for good rea 
sons, excusable ; and if any patron shall more than once be so 
reported it shall be deemed a sufficient reason for refusal to 
again receive his cream at all. 

Cream or milk gatherers are especially directed to take all 
possible pains to discover all violations or neglect of any ol 
these rules, and strictly enforce them in every case. 

These rules and instructions are found by experience and 
observation to be necessary for the protection of the association 
and the best good of all its members. Copies thereof will be 
securely posted conveniently near each tank where milk-cang 
are set, so that ignorance can be no excuse for neglect, 



286 DAIRYING. 

Patrons are requested to notify the board of trustees or direc- 
tors if any cream or milk gatherer is in any way delinquent or 
careless in his observance of these instructions. 

Patrons who are not disposed to be governed by these rules 
are requested to so advise the trustees or directors, and the 
treasurer will make prompt settlement with any who wish to 
withdraw. 

By order of the trustees or directors. 

, President. 

..o*.* ...., Treas. 



% 



PART 111. GENERAL TOPICS. 



I. CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL 
ASSOCIATIONS. 

CONSTITUTION AND BY-LAWS OF AGRICUL.TURAL1 

CLUBS. 

Together With Rules of Order, and Order of Business. 

(McKerkow.) 

Constitution. 

Preamble. — We, the undersigned, interested in agricul- 
ture and horticulture, and desirous to secure the benefits to 
be derived from organization, for the purpose of practical 
discussion and the promotion of the common interests 
of our pursuits, do subscribe the following Constitution: 

Article I. Name. — This association shall be styled and 
known as the Agricultural Club. 

Article II. Objects. — The objects of this club are to ad- 
vance the knowledge and promote the general interests of 
agriculture and horticulture in this community. 

Article III. Officers. — The officers shall consist of a 
president, vice-president, recording secretary, correspond- 
ing secretary, treasurer, and librarian. 

Article IV. Duties of Officers. — Section i. It shall be 
the duty of the president to preside at all meetings of the 
club; to enforce a due observance of the Constitution, By- 
laws, and Rules of Order; to assign topics of discussion at 
the suggestion of members. He shall neither make nor 
second any motion, but shall have the privilege of taking 
part in debate; and while he has the floor the meeting for 
the time being shall be in charge of the vice-president; 
but the president shall have no vote unless the club shall 
be equally divided. 

Section 2. It shall be the duty of the vice-president to 
preside at all times when the president is absent, and while 
he shall have temporarily vacated the chair. 



288 GENERAL TOPICS. 

Section 3. The recording secretary shall keep a record 
of the proceedings of the club; also the name of each 
member, and shall on the regular last meeting of each year 
prepare and read the names of all members; and he shall 
have charge of the archives of the club. 

Section 4. The corresponding secretary shall conduct 
the correspondence of the club and act as recording secre- 
tary in the absence of that officer. He shall also render 
such assistance to the recording secretary as that officer 
may require in the performance of his duties. 

Section 5. The treasurer shall keep all money belong- 
ing to the club, and disburse the same under the direction 
of the club, according to its laws. He shall collect all fees 
and dues of members, and shall at some time during the 
month of December of each year notify such as are in 
arrears and request their dues. He shall keep a correct 
account of all moneys received and expended. 

Section 6. The librarian shall have charge of the li- 
brary and its appurtenances, regulating the use of the same 
by the members, according to the rules and regulations 
prescribed. He shall make a written report of the condi- 
tion of the library at the annual meeting, and at such 
other times as the club may direct. He shall, within one 
week, deliver to his successor in office the library and its 
appurtenances, and all books, papers, and documents in 
his possession belonging to the club. 

Article V. Elections. — All elections for officers shall be 
by ballot, and shall be held at the first regular meeting in 
January of each year; and their terms shall commence im- 
mediately after their election, to continue for one year, or 
until others are elected to fill their places. In the case of 
vacancy occurring in any office the club shall go imme- 
diately into an election to fill the same. A majority of all 
the votes cast shall be necessary to a choice. 

Article VI. Membership. — Section i. Any person inter- 
ested in agriculture or horticulture, and of good moral 
standing, may become a member of this club by signing 
this Constitution, agreeing to support all laws and regula- 
tions made in pursuance thereof, and paying fifty cents 
annually into the treasury. 

Section 2. Honorary membership may be conferred in 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 289 

consideration of eminent character and services in honor 
of agriculture or horticulture and shall be conferred with- 
out fee or dues. The recipient shall not be entitled to 
hold office, but may take part in all discussions and vote 
on all questions. 

Article VII. Amendments. — No alteration, amendment, 
or addition can be made to this Constitution, neither can 
any part of it be repealed, without a vote of two thirds of 
the members present. Any proposed alteration, amend- 
ment, addition, or repeal must be submitted in writing, 
filed with the recording secretary, and read at two regu- 
lar meetings next preceding that on which the vote is taken. 

By-laws. 

Article I. This club shall assemble weekly (or twice a 

month) on evenings from November ist to April 

ist, and at such intervals thereafter as may be agreed 
upon by the club, or appointed by the president. The 
time and place of meeting may be altered at any regular 
meeting of the club by a vote of two thirds of all of the 
members present. 

Article II. Section i. Seven members shall constitute 
a quorum for the transaction of business of the club. A 
less number may meet, maintain a discussion on any topic, 
and adjourn to any given time. 

Section 2. Persons present, not members of the club, 
may be invited to take part in all discussions of agricul. 
tural topics; but they shall take no part in the business of 
the club. 

Article III. Section i. If the funds of the club should 
at any time be exhausted, or inadequate to meet the de- 
mands contemplated by the Constitution, there shall be an 
equal assessment upon each member to make up the de- 
ficiency. 

Section 2. No appropriation of money from the funds 
of the club shall be lawful, except in furtherance of the 
objects contemplated by the Constitution, as stated in ar- 
ticle 2, or as especially provided by these By-laws. 

Article IV. Section i. There shall be a library estab- 



290 GENERAL TOPICS. 

lished for the use of the club in furtherance of the objects 
contemplated in article 2 of the Constitution. 

Section 2. The library shall be open to the free use of 
the members of the club, who shall not be more than three 
months indebted to the treasury, subject to the prescribed 
rules and regulations. 

Section 3. The library shall be maintained by the sur- 
plus fund, after defraying the expenses of the club, and 
by the voluntary contributions and donations of the mem- 
bers, to be duly accredited to each contributor and donor. 

Section 4. The library shall be in charge of the li- 
brarian, as provided in article 4, section 6, of the Consti- 
tution. There shall be a standing library committee of 
three members appointed at each annual meeting, of whom 
the librarian shall be one, and ex-officio chairman, which 
shall have charge of the purchase and collection of books, 
papers, and pamphlets for the library, and perform such 
other duties as may be ordained. 

Section 5. Rules. — Rule i. No member shall have from 
the library more than one (two) book(s) at a time. 

Rule 2. No volume shall be retained longer than two 
weeks, under penalty of a fine of ten cents for the first 
week of detention, and five cents for every week thereafter. 

Rule 3. There shall be assessed for injuries as follows: 
ist. For an injury beyond ordinary wear, an amount pro- 
portionate to the injury, ascertained by the librarian. 2d. 
For the loss of the volume, the cost of the book; and if one 
of a set, an amount sufficient to replace it, or purchase a 
new volume. 

Rule 4. No person having incurred a fine shall be per- 
mitted to take books from the library until the fine is paid. 

Article V. A vote of two thirds of all the members 
present shall be required to pass any appropriation of 
money by the club, other than for its necessary contingent 
expenses. 

Article VI. Section i. Any member who shall suffer 
his account with the treasurer to go unsettled for more 
than one year shall cease to be considered as belonging to 
the club, and his name shall be stricken from the roll aC' 
cordingly. 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 291 

Section 2. Any member who shall be guilty of any gross 
violation of the rules of order, or of profane or indecent 
language or conduct, at any of the meetings of the club 
shall be fined, reprimanded, or expelled, as the club may, 
by a two thirds vote, decide. 

Section 3. Any member who shall become guilty of any 
heinous offence or disgraceful practice, such as to render 
him an unfit associate, shall, on conviction thereof, be ex- 
pelled from the club. 

Article VII. These By-laws may be amended in the 
same manner as the Constitution. 

Standing Resolutions. 

Resolved, That after this date the weekly meetings of 
this club shall be held on , at , or at the resi- 
dences of the members of the club, at o'clock. 

Resolved, That there shall be an Executive Committee, 
consisting of the president, recording secretary, and treas- 
urer, having power to transact the necessary business 
of the club, during the term when the meetings are not 
held. 

Rules of Order. 

1. No question shall be stated unless moved by two 
members, nor open for discussion until stated by the presi- 
dent. 

2. When a member intends to speak on a question, he 
shall rise in his place and respectfully address his remarks 
to the chair, confine his remarks to the question, and avoid 
personalities. Should more than one person rise at a 
time, the president shall determine who is entitled to the 
floor. 

3. When a member is called to order by the president, 
or any other member he shall at once take his seat, and 
every point of order shall be decided by the president, 
without debate, subject to an appeal to the club. 

4. In case of an appeal from the decision of 'the chair 
the question shall be put to the club thus: " Shall the de- 
cision of the chair be sustained?" which shall be decided 
without debate. 



292 GENERAL TOPICS. 

5. No member shall interrupt another while he is speak- 
ing, except to call to order. 

6. Any member may call for a division of the question, 
when the sense will admit of it. 

7. When any three members call for the yeas and nays, 
they shall be taken and recorded on the minutes. 

8. All resolutions shall, when required by the president 
or any member, be submitted in writing, and signed by the 
member offering the same. 

9. Cushing's " Manual of Parliamentary Practice " shall 
be adopted as authority in all matters pertaining to parlia- 
mentary order in the club. 

10. These Rules may be amended in the same manner 
as the Constitution and By-laws. 

Order of Business. 

1. Calling the roll of officers and necessary filling of 
vacancies. 

2. Reading of minutes of last meeting. 

3. Reports of committees. 

4. Unfinished business. 

5. New business. 

6. Reception of new members. 

7. Has any member any question to ask for information 
in regard to his farm, stock, etc.? 

8. Reading of communications and essays. 

9. Discussion of regular topic. 

10. Assignment of subject for next discussion. 

CONSTITUTION OF VILLiAGE-IMPROVEMENT 
SOCIETIES. 

Article i. This society shall be called the Im- 
provement Society. 

Art. 2. The object of this society shall be to improve 
and ornament the streets and public grounds of the village 
by planting and cultivating trees, establishing and protect- 
ing grass-plats and borders in the avenues, and generally 
doing whatever may tend to the improvement of the village 
as a place of residence. 



COKSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 293 

Art. 3. The business of the society shall be conducted 
by a board of nine directors, five gentlemen and four 
ladies, to be elected annually by the society, who shall 
constitute the board. This board shall, from its own 
number, elect one president, two vice-presidents, a secre- 
tary, and treasurer, and shall appoint such committees as 
they may deem advisable to further the ends of the society. 

Art. 4. It shall be the duty of the president, and, in his 
absence, of the senior vice-president, to preside at all meet- 
ings of the society, and to carry out all orders of the board 
of directors. 

Art. 5. It shall be the duty of the secretary to keep a 
correct and careful record of all proceedings of the society 
and of the board of directors in a book suitable for their 
preservation, and such other duties as ordinarily pertain 
to the office. 

Art. 6. It shall be the duty of the treasurer to keep the 
funds of the society, and to make such disbursements as 
may be ordered by the board of directors. 

Art. 7. No debt shall be contracted by the board of 
directors beyond the amount of available funds within 
their control to pay it, and no member of this society shall 
be liable for any debt of the society beyond the amount of 
his or her subscription. 

Art. 8. Any adult person may become a member of this 
society by paying two dollars ($2.00) annually. Any per- 
son not of age who shall plant and protect a tree, under 
the direction of the board of directors, or shall pay the 
sum of $1.00 annually, may become a member of this 
society until of age, after which time the annual dues 
shall be increased to two dollars ($2.00), the same as other 
adults. 

Art. 9. The annual meeting of the society shall be held 
during the first week in October at such place as the board 
of directors may select, and a notice of such meeting shall 
be posted in prominent places through the village. Other 
meetings of the society may be called by the board of 
directors when desirable. 

Art. 10. At the annual meeting the board of directors 



294 GENERAL TOPICS. 

shall report the amount of money received during the year 
and the source from which it has been received; the amount 
of money expended during the year, and the objects for 
which it has been expended; the number of trees planted 
at the cost of the society, and the number planted by indi- 
viduals; and, generally, all acts of the board that may be 
of interest to the society. This report shall be entered 
on the record of the society. 

Art. II. This constitution may be amended with the 
approval of two thirds of the members present at any 
annual meeting of the society, or at any special meeting 
called for that purpose, a month's notice of the proposed 
amendment, with its object, having been given. 

CONSTITUTION OF ROAD LEAGUES. 

Article i. This organization shall be known as the 
Road League of County, (State). 



Art. 2. Its object shall be the improvement of public 
roads in and vicinity. 

Art. 3. Any person may become a member on payment 
of one dollar per annum, and shall be entitled to vote at 
annual meetings. 

Art. 4. The annual meeting shall be held in November 
on Mondays on or preceding the full moon. 

Art. 5. The business of the Road League shall be 
intrusted to a council of twelve, who shall be chosen by 
ballot at the annual meetings, and they shall hold office 
until their successors are elected. 

By-laws. 

Art. I. The council of twelve shall convene as soon as 
possible after the election, and shall choose from their 
number a president, ako a secretary and treasurer (who 
may be one and the same person), and the council shall 
hold meetings monthly at the call of the secretary. 

Art. 2. The president shall preside at all meetings, and 
when absent a member present shall be called to the chair 
in the usual way. 



CONSTITUTIONS OF AGRICULTURAL ASSOCIATIONS. 295 

Art. 3. The secretary shall keep a record of the proceed- 
ings of all meetings and conduct the correspondence of the 
league. 

Art. 4. The treasurer shall keep an accurate account of 
receipts and disbursements in a book for that purpose, and 
all disbursements shall be authorized or approved by the 
council. 

Art. 5. Meetings of the council may be called by order 
of the president, or at the request of three of its members^ 
and five shall constitute a quorum. 

Art. 6. The president shall appoint a monthly committee 
of two members of the council, who shall give special 
supervision to the work of the overseer in charge of the 
roads under the jurisdiction of the league, and serve until 
their successors are appointed. 

Art. 7. The council shall fill all vacancies occurring by 
resignation or otherwise, and they may drop from their 
number any member who shall persistently neglect his 
duty, or manifest indifference by non-attendance of the 
monthly meetings. 

Art. 8. The constitution and by-laws of this league may 
be changed by a two thirds vote of the entire council, 
notice of such change having "been given in writing at a 
preceding meeting. 

The order of business of the council shall be as follows: 
I. Roll-call. 2. Reading of minutes of previous meeting. 
3. Report of treasurer. 4. Unfinished business. 5. New 
business. 6. Reports of committees and of the overseers. 
7. Adjournment. 



296 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



11. MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND 
TABLES. 

ES PLANATION OF THE FLAG SIGNALS ADOPTED 
BY THE UNITED STATES WEATHER BUREAU. 



The U. S; Weather Bureau furnishes, when practicable, 
for the benefit of the general public and those interests de- 
pendent to a greater or less extent upon weather condi- 
tions, the " Forecasts " which are prepared daily, at 
lo A.M. and lo p.m., for the following day. These weather 
forecasts are telegraphed to observers at stations of the 
Weather Bureau, railway officials, and many others, 
and are so worded as to be readily communicated to the 
public by means of flags or steam whistles. The flags 
adopted for this purpose are five in number, and of the 
form and dimensions indicated below: 



No. 3. 
No. I. No. 2. White and Blue 

White Flag. Blue Flag. Flag. 



No 4. No. 5. 

Black Tri- White Flag 
angular with black 
Flag. square in centre. 





Clear or fair Rain or snow. Local rains 
weather. or snow 



^ 



Temperature 
signal. 



Cold wave. 



No. I, white flag, 6 feet square, indicates clear or fair 
weather. No. 2, blue flag, 6 feet square, indicates rain or 
snow. No. 3, white and blue flag (parallel bars of white 
and blue), 6 feet square, indicates that local rains or show- 
ers will occur, and that the rainfall will not be general. 
No. 4, black triangular flag, 4 feet at the base and 6 feet in 
length, always refers to temperature; when placed above 
Nos. I, 2, or 3, it indicates warmer weather; when placed 



IvJISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AKD TABLES. 297 

below Nos. 1,2, or 3, it indicates colder weather; when not 
displayed, the indications are that the temperature will re- 
main stationary, or that the change in temperature will 
not vary more than 4° from the temperature of the same 
hour of the preceding day from March to October, inclu- 
sive, and not more than 6° for the remaining months of the 
year. No. 5, white flag, 6 feet square, with black square 
in centre, indicates the approach of a sudden and decided 
fall in temperature. This signal is not to be displayed un- 
less it is expected that the temperature will fall to 42" or 
lower, and is usually ordered at least twenty-four hours in 
advance of the cold wave. 

Interpretation of Displays. 

No. I, alone, indicates fair weather, stationary tempera- 
ture. 

No. 2, alone, indicates rain or snow, stationary tempera- 
ture. 

No. 3, alone, indicates local rain or snow, stationary 
temperature. 

No. I, with No. 4 above it, indicates fair weather, 
warmer. 

No. I, with No. 4 below it, indicates fair weather, colder. 

No. 2, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather, 
rain or snow. 

No. 2, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather, rain 
or snow. 

No. 3, with No. 4 above it, indicates warmer weather, 
with local rains or snow. 

No. 3, with No. 4 below it, indicates colder weather, 
with local rains or snow. 

No. 1, with No. 5 above it, indicates fair weather, cold 
wave. 

No. 2, with No. 5 above it, indicates wet weather, cold 
wave. 



29B 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



LIST OF Headquarters of state weather 

SERVICES. 

The headquarters of the state weather services are as 
follows: 



Auburn, Alabama. 
Little Rock, Arkansas. 
Sacramento, California. 
Denver, Colorado. 
Atlanta, Georgia. 
Springfield, Illinois. 
Indianapolis or Lafayette, 

Indiana. 
Des Moines, Iowa. 
Topeka, Kansas. 
Louisville, Kentucky. 
New Orleans, Louisiana. 
Baltimore, Maryland. 



Crete, Nebraska. 
Carson City, Nevada. 
New Brunswick, New Jersey. 
Santa Fe, New Mexico. 
Ithaca, New York. 
Raleigh, North Carolina. 
Bismarck, North Dakota. 
Columbus, Ohio. 
Portland or Oswego, Oregon. 
Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. 
Columbia, South Carolina. 
Huron, South Dakota. 



Nashville, Tennessee. 
Cambridge, Massachusetts. Galveston, Texas. 
Lansing, Michigan. Lynchburg, Virginia. 

Minneapolis, Minnesota. Olympia, Washington. 
University, Mississippi. Parkersburg, West Virginia. 
Columbia, Missouri. Milwaukee, Wisconsin. 

BENEFICIAL AND HARMFUL. HAWKS AND OWLS. 

(Yearbook U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

Much misapprehension exists among farmers as to the 
habits of birds of prey. Examination of the contents of 
the stomachs of such birds to the number of .several 
thousand has established the fact that their food consists 
almost entirely of injurious mammals and insects, and that 
accordingly these birds are in most cases positively beneficial 
Jo the farmer, and should be fostered ana protected. 

Among those wholly beneficial o^xt. the large, rough-legged 
hawk; its near relative, the squirrel-hawk, or ferruginous 
roughleg; and the four kites: the white-tailed kite, Missis- 
sippi kite, swallow-tailed kite, and everglade kite. 

The class that is beneficial in the main — that is, whose 
^depredations are of little consequence in comparison with 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 299 

the good it does — includes a majority of the hawks and 
owls, among them being the following species and their 
races: March-hawk, Harris's hawk, red-tailed hawk, red- 
shouldered hawk, short-tailed hawk, white-tailed hawk, 
Swainson's hawk, short-winged hawk, broad-winged hawk, 
Mexican black hawk, Mexican goshawk, sparrow-hawk, 
Audubon's caracara, barn-owl, long-eared owl, short-eared 
owl, great gray owl, barred owl. Western owl, Richardson's 
owl, Acadian owl, screech-owl, flammulated screech-owl, 
snowy owl, hawk-owl, burrowing owl, pygmy owl, fer- 
ruginous pygmy owl, and elf-owl. 

The class in which the harmful and the beneficial qualities 
about balance each other includes the golden eagle, bald 
eagle, pigeon-hawk, Richardson's hawk, Aplomado falcon, 
prairie falcon, and the great horned owl. 

The harmful clsiss comprises the gyrfalcons, duck-hawk, 
sharp-shinned hawk, Cooper's hawk, and goshawk. 

WHAT TO DO IN CASE OF ACCIDENTS. 

By J. NoER, M.D., Stoughton, Wis. 

Wounds. — The all-important item in the treatment of 
wounds or cuts is absolute cleanliness or asepsis. Asepsis 
can be secured by having everything that is to be used for 
the wound boiled just before applying it. 

Before dressing a wound: 

ist. Wash your hands, scrub and clean finger-nails 
thoroughly with soap and hot boiled water. 

2d. Wash the limb or parts around cut or wound with 
boiled water and soap. 

3d. Wash out the wound with hot boiled water. If there 
is still oozing from the cut surfaces, press clean cloths 
wrung out of boiled water as hot as hands can bear against 
the bleeding surfaces till it stops. 

4th. Draw the edges of the wound together with strips 
of court-plaster. 

5th. Lay over the wound so as to cover it well ten to 
twelve thicknesses of clean boiled and baked dry cheese- 
cloth, sheeting, or linen, and fasten on with a bandage. 



300 GENERAL TOPICS. 

6th. Let the injured parts be at rest. If you have 
secured asepsis and gotten the edges of the wound together 
closely, keep the wounded parts at rest for from three to six 
days; the wound will then heal without pain or pus, and 
without swelling, inflammation, or fever. Don't hinder 
the healing of a wound by putting pitch, tobacco juice, 
" healing ointments," liniments, or other filth into it. 

Broken or Mangled Limbs should be supported by 
temporary splints, made from boards, pasteboard, shingles, 
etc. Put one on each side of the limb and tie on with 
handkerchief or bandages. The splints should be long 
enough to support entire limb. 

Burns and Scalds — If the burn is extensive, place the 
person in a bath of lukewarm water, keep the body im- 
mersed up to the chin, see that the water is kept warm; 
patient may be left in bath indefinitely. If the burn is not 
large, but painful, cover the burned surface with a thick 
layer of flour, powdered starch, zinc ointment, or cotton 
batting. Equal parts of limewater and linseed oil may be 
applied, and the burn covered with cotton. It is impor- 
tant in burns to apply a dressing that will exclude the air. 
In large burns there is always severe shock: treat this 
as directed below. 

Shock. — When a person has been severely injured or 
badly frightened, there follows a condition of the system 
which is known as shock. A person suffering from shock 
generally becomes pale, cold, faint, and trembling with a 
small weak pulse. The mind is dull and the person looks 
anxious and distressed. Sometimes the person is excited 
and restless. 

Treatment. — Let the person rest in a quiet cheerful 
place. If he is little injured, tell him so calmly. If the 
injury is severe, and there is pain, broken bones, bleeding, 
etc., you must still be calm, cheerful, and helpful. Give a 
tablespoonful (2 or 3, if a drinker) of whiskey in water every 
quarter or half hour. Wrap him in warm blankets and 
lay hot water bottles around him. If there is much pain, 
give 10 drops of laudanum. In case of bleeding, open 
wounds, or broken bones, treat them as directed. A flushed 
face and fever show that the patient is reviving and does 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 301 

not need hot-water bottles or whiskey. Never let an in- 
jured person be surrounded by a crowd of people. 

Hemorrhage or Bleeding ahtays occurs after an in- 
jury. It is the result of the tearing or cutting off of the 
blood-vessels. A person suffering from hemorrhage either 
internal or external is pale, faint, with feeble pulse. 

Treatment. — Keep the person quiet. If the bleeding 
comes from a wound in the upper or lower limbs, it will 
stop-by raising the limb up above the rest of the body. 
Tie clean cloths tightly over the sore. If the blood comes 
in spurts, tie a rope or handkerchief tightly around limb 
above cut nearest to body. If bleeding is slight, it will 
stop by tying clean cloths tightly over the cut. Ice may 
be applied over the bleeding vessels. Clean cloths wrung 
out of water as hot as hands can bear is often effective. 

Never use cobwebs, tobacco juice, or other filthy things 
to stop bleeding. If a person spits or coughs up red frothy 
blood, he is probably bleeding from the lungs. Let him 
lie down, and if it continues to come up apply ice to chest 
and give a teaspoonful of extract of ergot. 

Sunstroke and Heat Exhaustion. — In sunstroke the 
person has a red face; skin is hot and dry; there is high 
fever; breathing and pulse are very rapid. There is often 
delirium and convulsions. Put the patient in a cold bath; 
apply ice to the head and rub the skin with pieces of ice. 
If he cannot be put into a bath, put him in the shade and 
pour cold water over him, or wrap him in cold wet blank- 
ets and pour cold water over his head. In heat exhaus- 
tion the patient is pale and the skin cool. There is no 
fever. Let the person rest in the shade. Give stimulants, 
as hot coffee or whiskey. 

Poisoning-. — In any case of poisoning when the kind of 
poison is unknown, induce vomiting at once by giving 
warm water with or without a tablespoonful of ground 
mustard, or double this amount of salt to the teacup. 
Thrust your finger down his throat to help the emetic. 
Milk, raw eggs, gruel, oil should be given freely if irritant 
poisons, like potash, lye, or acids, have been taken. The 
following table contains suggestions for the proper treat- 
ment of the forms of poisoning occurring most frequently: 



302 



GENERAL TOriCS. 



Poison. 



Acids: 
Sulfuric, 
Nitric, 
Muriatic, 
Oxalic. 

Carbolic acid and 
Creosote. 

Alkalies: 
Ammonia, 
Soda, 
Potash, 
Lye. 

Arsenic, 
Paris Green, 
Poison fly-paper, 
Rough on rats. 



Treatment. 



Give soap, soda, whitewash, or magnesia, mixed in 

water. Produce vomiting. 
Give gruel, milk, eggs (uncooked). 
Relieve pain by giving lo drops of laudanum in 

water. 

Give Epsom salts, raw eggs. 
Produce vomiting. 

Give vinegar, lemon of orange juice, or any acid 

diluted in plenty of water. 
Give milk, gruel, white of egg, oils. 
For pain give lo drops of laudanum. 

Produce vomiting if there is none already. 
Hydrated oxid of iron with magnesia in water it 

the antidote. 
Give 2 tablespoonsful of castor oil. 



Corrosive subli-J [Produce vomiting. Give a teaspoonful of tannin in 
mate. ) water. 

\ Give raw eggs, milk, castor oil. 



lodin. 

Opium, 
Morphin, 
Laudanum, 
Paregoric. 

Poison gas 
coal stove. 



from 



Produce vomiting. 

Give starch and water, raw eggs, milk, or gruel. 

Produce vomiting. Inject from a pint to a quart of 
strong coffee into rectum, or give by mouth if 
patient can swallow. 

Keep patient awake. 

Fresh air ; stimulants, as coffee, ammonia. 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 303 



INTEREST TABLES. 



4% 


$1 


$2 


$3 


$4 


$5 


$6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


fioo 


$rooo 


4 DAY. 


O 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 











5 


45 


8 " 


O 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 





I 


I 


9 


8q 


12 " 


o 


o 


o 


o 


o 


I 


I 


I 


I 


2 


13 


1-34 


i6 " 


o 


o 


o 


o 


^ 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


18 


1.78 


20 " 


o 


o 


o 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


Si 


2 


22 


2.22 


24 '' 


o 


o 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


27 


2.67 


28 " 


o 


o 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


, 3 


31 


3-II 


I MO. . 


o 


o 


I 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


33 


3 -.34 


2 ii 


o 


2 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


6 


7 


67 


6.67 


3 " 


I 


2 


3 


4 


.5 


b 


7 


8 


9 


10 


1. 00 


10.00 


6 " 


2 


4 


6 


8 


lO 


12 


14 


16 


18 


20 


2.00 


20.00 


I YR... 


4 


8 


12 


i6 


20 


24 


28 


32 


36 


40 


4.00 


40.00 



5% 


$1 


$2 


$3 


$4 


$5 


$6 


$7 


$8 



$9 



$10 


$100 
6 


$1000 


4 DAY. 


























s6 


8 " 




















I 


I 


I 


I 


II 


I. II 


12 " 














I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


17 


1.67 


16 " 











I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


2 


22 


2.22 


20 '■ 








I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


27 


2.74 


24 " 








I 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


3 


33 


3-34 


28 " 





I 


I 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


4 


4 


3» 


384 


I MO. . 





I 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


4 


42 


4.17 


2 " 


I 


2 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


^3 


«-34 


3 " 


2 


3 


4 


5 


b 


7 


9 


10 


II 


13 


1-25 


12.50 


6 " 


3 


5 


8 


TO 


13 


15 


18 


20 


23 


25 


2.50 


25.00 


I YR . . 


5 


10 


15 


20 


25 


30 


35 


40 


45 


50 


5.00 


50.00 



G% 


$1 


$2 



$3 


$4 


$5 



$6 



$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$100 


$1000 


4 DAY. 














I 


I 


I 


7 


67 


8 '• 











I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


13 


1-33 


12 " 








I 


I 


I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


20 


2.00 


16 " 





I 


I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


27 


2.67 


20 " 


I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


3 


33 


3-33 


24 


I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


40 


4.00 


I MO. . 


I 


I 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


5 


50 


5.00 


2 " 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


b 


7 


8 


9 


10 


1. 00 


10.00 


1 !! 


2 


3 


5 


6 


8 


9 


II 


12 


14 


15 


1.50 


15.00 


6 " 


3 


b 


9 


12 


15 


18 


21 


24 


27 


30 


3.00 


30.00 


I YR... 


6 


12 


18 


24 


30 


36 


42 


48 


54 


60 


6.00 


60.00 



7% 


$1 



$2 


$3 


$4 


$5 


$6 


$7 


$8 


$9 


$10 


$100 


$1000 


4 DAY. 





























8 


77 


8 " 




















I 


I 


I 


1 


15 


1-55 


12 " 














I 


I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


23 


2.31 


16 " 











I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


2 


3 


3' 


3.10 


20 " 








I 


I 


I 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


38 


3-84 


24 " 








I 


I 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


5 


46 


4.62 


I MO. . 





I 


2 


2 


3 


3 


4 


4 


5 


6 


58 


5.83 


2 " 


I 


2 


3 


5 


b 


7 


8 


9 


10 


12 


1. 17 


11.67 


§ !.' 


2 


3 


5 


7 


9 


10 


12 


14 


16 


18 


1-75 


17-50 


6 " 


4 


7 


11 


14 


18 


21 


25 


28 


32 


35 


3-50 


35- 00 


I YR... 


7 


14 


21 


28 


35 


42 


49 


5& 


63 


70 


7.00 


70.00 



304 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



TABLE OF WAGES BY THE WJJEK. 

(Computed on a basis of ten hours' labor per day.) 



CO 
V 

« 


I 
Hr. 


2 
Hrs. 


Hrs. 


8 
Hrs. 


Hrs. 


I 
Day. 

•5° 
.834 


2 
Days. 


Days. 


4 5 
Days. Days. 

1 


6 
Days. 


$3 
4 
5 


• 05 

.o6§ 

.08^ 


.10 

•i3i 
.i6f 


•25 

•33* 

.4i§ 


.40 

•533 
.66§ 


-45 
.60 

•75 


I. GO 

^•333 
i.66§ 


1.50 
2.00 

2.50 


2.00 ' 2.50 
2-661 3-33i 
3-33^ 4-i6f 


3.00 
4.00 
5.00 


b 


.10 


.20 


•50 


.80 


.90 


1. 00 


2.00 


3.00 


4.00 ! 5.00 


6.00 


7 
8 


•13^ 


•23^ 

.26§ 


.58^ 
.66§ 


•93t 
i.o6§ 


1.05 
1.20 


i.i6§ 
1-333 


2-333 

2.66s 


3-50 
4.00 


4.66§ 5-83^ 
5-33^ 6.66§ 


7.00 
8.00 


9 

lO 

II 


• 15 
.i6§ 

.18^ 


•36§ 


■9'J 


1.20 
1-334 
I -463 


1-35 
1.50 
1.65 


1.50 
i.66§ 
I- 834 


3.00 

3-333 
3-66§ 


4-50 
5.00 

5-5° 


6.00 7.50 
6 662 8. 33 J 
7 -33 J- 9-i6i 


9.00 
10.00 
11.00 


I2 


.20 


.40 


I. 00 


1.60 


1.80 


2.00 


4.00 


6.00 


8.00 10.00 


12.00 


13 
14 


•23^ 


•43^ 
•46I 


1.08^ 

i.i6§ 


1-733 
i.86§ 


1-95 
2.10 


2. Ibg 
2-333 


4-333 
4-66§ 


6.50 
7.00 


8.66§ 10.83^ 
9.33I ii.66§ 


13.00 
14.00 


15 
16 

17 


■25 
•26f 

.28^ 


•50 

•533 

•56§ 


1.25 

1-333 
1.41I 


2.00 

2-I3i 
2.26f 


2.25 
2.40 
2.55 


2.50 

2.66§ 

2.83i 


5 00 

5-333 
5-66§ 


7-50 
8.00 
8.50 


10.00 12.50 
io.66| 13.33^ 
11.33^ i4.i6§ 


15.00 
16.00 
17.00 


18 


.30 


.60 


1.50 


2.40 


2.70 


3.00 


6.00 


9.00 


12.00 115.00 


18.00 


19 
20 


.3i§ 
•33^ 


•63^ 
•66§ 


1-58^ 
i.66§ 


2-533 

2.66§ 


2.85 
3.00 


3-I6S 
3-333 


6-33^ 
6.66§ 


9-50 
10.00 


i2.66§ 15.83I 
T3.33I i6.66§ 


19.00 
20.00 


34 


.40 


.80 


2.00 


3.20 


3.60 


4.00 


8.00 


12.00 


16.00 20.00 

1 


24.00 



TABLE OF WAGES BY THE DAY. 

(Computed on a basis of ten hours' labor per day.) 





25c. 


37IC. 


50c. 


62iC. 


75c. 


87ic. 


$1.00 


$l.I2j 


$1.25 


i hour.. 


.01 J 


.oil 


.02 J 


.03h 


.03f 


• 04I 


•05 


-osf 


.o6i^ 


I " 


.02^ 


•03f 


-05 


.o6i- 


.o7i 


.o8f 


.•10 


-Hi 


.12J 


2 " 


•05 


-07^ 


.10 


.I2i 


•15 


.17^ 


.20 


.22^^ 


-25 


5 " 


.12^ 


.i8f 


-25 


-3ii 


•37i 


•43l 


•50 


-56i 


.62^ 


8 " 


.20 


•30 


.40 


•50 


.60 


.70 


.80 


-90 


$1.00 


9 " 


.22|- 


•33f 


-45 


-56i 


.67* 


•78f 


* -9° 


i.oii 


1.12J 


I day... 


•25 


.37i 


* -5° 


.62^ 


* -75 


^ -87^ 


$r.oo 


1.12^^ 


1.25 


2 davs.. 


•50 


* -75 


if 1 .00 


$1.25 


•pi .50 


fi-75 


2.00 


2.25 


2.50 


ft -75 


$1.12} 


1.50 


i-«7i 


2.25 


2.62^ 


3.00 


3-371 


3-75 


4 " 


351.00 


1.50 


2.00 


2.50 


3.00 


3-50 


4.00 


4 50 


5.00 


5 


1.25 


1-87* 


2.50 


3 12J 


3-75 


4-37* 


5-00 


5-62i 


6.25 


6 " 


1.50 


2.25 


3.00 


3-75 


4-50 


5-25 


6.00 


6.75 


7-50 





$i.37i 


$1.50 


$1.62^ 


$1.75 


$1.87^ 


$2.00 
.10 


$2.12^- 


$2.25 


$2.37^ 


i hour.. 


-o6| 


.07i 


.08 J 


.o8| 


.091 


• lOf 


.11} 


• III 


I " 


.i3f 


•15 


.i6i 


-i7i 


.i8f 


.20 


.21I 


.22^ 


.23} 


2 " 


-^7+ 


-30 


-32* 


•35 


-37f 


* ■'^° 


. -4^^ 


* -45 


* -47^ 


5 '! 


.68} 


* -75 


. ■^■'i 


.874 


. -93* 


$1.00 


$i.o6J- 


$I.I2i- 


$1.18} 


8 " 


$1.10 


$1.20 


$1.30 


$1.40 


fi.50 


1.60 


1.70 


1.80 


1.90 


9 " 


1-23} 


I-3S 


i.46i 


^•57i 


1.681 


1.80 


i-9ii- 


2.02^ 


2.13J 


I day... 


1-37^ 


1.50 


1.62^ 


1-75 


i-87i 


2.00 


2.12f 


2.25 


2.37* 


2 days.. 


2.75 


3.00 


3-25 


3-50 


3-75 


4.00 


4-25 


4-50 


4-75 


3 :: 


4.12^ 


4-50 


4.87i 


5-25 


5-62i 


6.00 


6.37i 


6-75 


7.12^ 


4 " 


5-50 


6.00 


6.50 


7.00 


7-50 


8.00 


8.50 


9.00 


9-50 


5 :: 


6.87i 


7-50 


8. 12 J 


8-75 


9-37* 


10.00 


10.62^ 


11.25 


11.87* 


6 ♦' 


8.25 


9.00 


9-75 


10.50 


11.25 


12.00 


12.75 


13-50 


14.25 



MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 305 



GESTATION CALiENDAR. 

Average Gestation Period. 

Mares, 48^ weeks (340 days, extremes 307 and 412 days). 
Cows, 403^ " (283 " " 240 " 311 " ). 

Eiues, 22 " (150 " " 146 " 157 " ). 

S07VS, 16 " (112 " " 109 " 143 " ). 



Time 


of 


Mares. 


Cows, 


Ewes, 


Sows, 


Service. 


340 Days. 


283 Days. 


150 Days. 


112 Days. 


Jan. 


I 


Dec. 6 


Oct. 10 


May 30 


April 22 


" 


6 


" II 


" 15 


June 4 


" 27 


" 


II 


" 16 


" 20 


9 


May 2 


" 


16 


" 21 


" 25 


" 14 


7 


" 


21 


" 26 


" 30 


" 19 


12 


it 


26 
31 


t" 31 

Jan. 5 


Nov. 4 
9 


" 24 
" 29 


:: ^7 
" 22 


Feb. 


5 


" 10 


" U 


July 4 


" 27 


'* 


ID 


" 15 


" 19 


9 


June I 


t( 


15 


" 20 


!! ^'^ 


W ^'^ 


6 


it 


20 


" 25 


" 29 


" 19 


" II 


(( 


25 


" 30 


Dec. 4 


" 24 


" 16 


Mar. 


2 


Feb. 4 


9 


" 29 


" 21 


" 


7 


9 


" U 


Aug. 3 


" 26 


i( 


12 


w ^* 


" 19 


8 


July I 


ii 


17 


'9 


" 24 


'; 13 


6 


" 


22 


" 24 


29 


-' 18 


" II 


ii 


27 


Mar. I 


Jan. 3 


" 23 


" 16 


April 


I 


6 


8 


" 28 


" 21 


6 


" II 


!' ^3 


Sept. 2 


" 26 


t i 


II 


" 16 


" 18 


" 7 


" 31 


<i 


16 


" 21 


" 23 


" 12 


Aug. 5 


ti 


21 


" 26 


" 28 


" 17 


" 10 


ti 


26 


" 31 


Feb. 2 


" 22 


" 15 


May 


I 


April 5 


:' 7 


27 


" 20 


" 


6 


'* 10 


' 12 


Oct. 2 


" 26 


'* 


II 


W ^5 


" 17 


7 


" 30 


ii 


16 


" 20 


" 22 


" 12 


Sept, 4 


" 


21 


" 25 


" 27 • 


" 17 


" 9 


Ci 


26 


" 30 


Mar. 4 


" 22 


" t4 


ii 


31 


May 5 


9 


" 27 


" 19 


June 


S 


" 10 


!' '^ 


Nov. I 


" 24 


" 


10 


W ^5 


" 19 


6 


" 29 


ii 


15 


20 


24 


" II 


Oct. 4 


ii 


20 


" 25 


" 29 


" 16 


" 9 


ii 


25 


T 30 


April 3 


" 21 


" 14 


ii 


30 


June 4 


8 


'• 26 


" 19 


July 


5 


9 


" 13 


Dec. I 


"i ^^ 


*' 


:o 


1< ^"^ 


*' 18 


. " 6 


" 29 


(( 


15 


^9 


" 23 


" II 


Nov. 3 


(i 


20 


24 


" 28 


" 16 


8 



306 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



GESTATION CALENDAR.— ( Continued.) 



Time 


of 


Mares, 


Cows, 


Ewes, 


Sows, 


Service. 


340 Days. 


283 Days. 


150 Days. 


112 Days. 


July 


25 


June 29 


May 3 


Dec. 21 


Nov. 13 


4t 


30 


July 4 


8 


" 26 


" 18 


Aug. 


4 


" 9 


" 13 


" 31 


:: ^3 


44 


9 


" 14 


" 18 


Jan. 5 


" 28 


(t 


14 


" 19 


" 23 


" 10 


Dec. 3 


(4 


19 


" 24 


" 28 


'' '5 


8 


(4 


24 


" 29 


June 2 


" 20 


" 13 


44 


29 


Aug. 3 


" 7 


" 25 


" 18 


Sept, 


3 


8 


" 12 


" 30 


" 23 


44 


8 


" 13 


*' 17 


Feb. 4 


" 28 


(4 


13 


" iS 


" 22 


9 


Jan. 2 


(4 


18 


" 23 


" 27 


r ^4 


!! 7 


44 


23 


" 28 


July 2 


" 19 


" 12 


44 


28 


Sept. 2 


" 7 


" 24 


" 17 


Oct. 


3 


" 7 


" 12 


Mar. I 


" 22 


" 


8 


" 12 


" 17 


6 


" 27 


44 


13 


" 17 


" 22 


" II 


Feb. I 


44 


18 


" 22 


" 27 


" 16 


6 


44 


23 


" 27 


Aug. I 


" 21 


" II 


44 


28 


Oct. 2 


6 


" 26 


" 16 


Nov. 


2 


" 7 


" II 


" 31 


" 21 


" 


7 


" 12 


" 16 


April 5 


" 26 


44 


12 


" 17 


" 21 


" 10 


Mar. 3 


44 


17 


" 22 


" 26 


" 15 


" 8 


44 


22 


27 


" 3^ 


" 20 


1 ^3 


44 


28 


Nov. I 


Sept. 5 


" 25 


" 18 


Dec. 


2 


" 6 


" 10 


" 30 


" 23 


44 


7 


" II 


" 15 


May 5 


" 28 


44 


12 


" 16 


" 20 


" 10 


April 2 


44 


17 


" 21 


" 25 


" 15 


7 


44 


■zz 


" 26 


" 30 


" 20 


" 12 


14 


27 


Dec. I 


Oct. -5 


'• 25 


" 17 


(1 


31 


" 5 


" 9 


" 29 


" 21 



DURATION AND FREQUENCY OF HEAT IN 
FARM ANIMALS. (Wolff.) 



Mares 
Cows. 
Ewes 
Sheep 



In Heat for 



5-7 days 



2-3 
2-4 



If not Impreg- 
nated, Heat will 
Recur after 



3-4 weeks 

3-4 " 

17-28 days 

9-12 " 



After Coming In^ 

Heat will 

Recur after 



5-9 days 
21-28 " 
7 months 
4-5 weeks* 



* 8-9 weeks at the latest. 




MISCELLANEOUS SUBJECTS AND TABLES. 30? 

DOMESTIC POSTAGE. 

First Class. — Letters and all written matter, whether 
sealed or unsealed, and all other matter sealed, nailed, sewed, 
tied, or fastened in any manner, so that it cannot be easily 
examined, two cents per ounce or fraction thereof. A " Spe- 
cial Delivery " ten-cent stamp when attached to a letter, in 
addition to the lawful postage, shall entitle the letter to im- 
mediate delivery at or within one mile of any post-office. 
Postal cards, one cent each; with paid reply, two cents each. 

Second Class. — All regular newspapers, magazines and 
other periodicals issued at intervals not exceeding three 
months; the postage is one cent for each four ounces, payable 
by postage stamps. 

Third Class. — Embraces printed books, pamphlets, cir- 
culars, engravings, lithographs, proof-sheets and manu- 
script accompanying the same, and all matter of the same 
general character, and not having the character of personal 
correspondence. Circulars produced by hektograph or sim- 
ilar process, or by electric pen, are rated as third class. 
The limit of weight for mail matter of the third class is four 
pounds, except in the case of single books exceeding that 
weight. The rate of postage on mail matter of the third 
class is one cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof. 

Fourth Class. — All mailable matter not included in the 
three preceding classes, which is so prepared for mailing as 
to be easily taken from the wrapper and examined. Rate. 
one cent per ounce or fraction thereof, except seeds, roots, 
cuttings, bulbs, plants, and scions, which are one cent per 
two ounces. Limit of weight, 4 lbs. Full prepayment com- 
pulsory. Liquids and other like injurious matter not admit- 
ted except under conditions which may be learned at any 
post-office. 

Registry fee, eight cents, which, with the postage, must be 
fully prepaid. The name and address of sender must be 
given on the outside of the envelope or wrapper. 

FOREIGN POSTAGE. 

To all parts of the Universal Postal Union (embracing 
nearly every civilized country): 

On Letters, five cejits for each half ounce or fraction there- 
of; prepayment optional. Double rates are collected on 
deli'-^ry of unpaid or short-paid letters. 



308 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



^ 



On newspapers, books, pamphlets, photographs, sheet 
music, maps, engravings, and similar printed matter, one 
cent for each two ounces or fraction thereof. 

To Canada (including Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, 
Manitoba, and Prince Edward Island): Letters, two cents for 
each ounce or fraction thereof; Books, Circulars, and similar 
printed matter, one cent for each two ounces or fraction there- 
of; Second Class Matter, same as in the United States; 
Samples and Merchandise, one cent per ounce. Packages 
must not exceed 4 lbs. 6 oz. in weight; prepayment compul- 
sory. 

To Mexico: Letters, Postal Cards, and printed matter, 
same rates as in the United States. Samples, one cent per 
ounce; Merchandise other than Samples can only be sent 
by Parcel Post. 

Money Order Fees. — For Money Orders in denomina- 
tions of $100 or less, the following fees are charged: Orders 
not exceeding $2.50, 3c.; over $2.50 to $5, 5c.; $5 to $10, 8c.; 
$10 to !$2o, IOC. ; $20 to $30, I2C. ; $30 to $40, 15c. ; $40 to $50, 
i8c.; $50 to f6o, 20c ; ?6o to I75, 25c.; $75 to fioo, 30c. 

Express Money Orders may be bought of the leading ex- 
press companies at the following rates: Not over $5, 5c.; 
$5 to $10, 8c.; $10 to $20, loc; $20 to $30, 12c.; $30 to $40, 
15c.; $40 to $50, i8c.; $50 to $60, 20c.; $60 to $75, 25c.; $75 
to $100, 30c. 

international or foreign money-order fees. 



On Algeria, Belgium, British India, Cape Colony, Constan- 
tinople, Denmark, Dominion of Canada, Egypt, England, 
France, German Empire, Hong Kong, Ireland, Italy, Ja- 
maica, Japan, Newfoundland, New South Wales, Ne\V 
Zealand, Portugal, Sandwich Islands, Scotland, Shanghai, 
Sweden, Switzerland, Tasmania, Victoria. 



For Orders of $10, or less, loc. 
Over$io, not exceeding $20, 20c. 
Over $20, not exceeding $30, 30c. 
Over $30, not exceeding $40. 40c. 
Over $40, not exceeding $50, 50c. 



Over S50, not exceeding $60, 60c. 
Over $60, not exceeding $70, 70c. 
Over $70, not exceeding $80, 80c. 
Over $80, not exceeding S90, 90c. 
Over $90, not exceeding $100, $1. 



Orders can also be obtained on Austria and the East Indies 
by remittance through the Postal Department of Switzer- 
land, subject to the rates of the Swiss Department to those 
countries. Also on Norway and the Netherlands, through 
the Postal Department of the German Empire, subject to 
the rates of the German Department to those countries. 



WEIGHTS AKD MEASURES* 309 



~> 



III. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 

CUSTOMARY SYSTEM OF TI^EIGHTS AND 
3IEASURES. 

I. Weights. 

A. AVOIRDUPOIS WEIGHT. 

I ton = 2000 pounds (lbs.) ;* 

I lb. = i6 ounces (oz.) = 256 drams = 768 scruples = 7680 grains ; 

I oz. = 16 drams = 48 scruples = 480 grains ; 

I dram = 3 scruples = 30 grains ; 

1 scruple = 10 grains. 

B. APOTHECARIES' WEIGHT, FOR DRUGS. 

I lb. = 12 oz, = 96 drams = 288 scruples = 5760 grains; 
I oz. = 8 drams = 24 scruples = 480 grains; 
I dram = 3 scruples = 60 grains ; 
I scruple = 20 grains. 

C. TROY WEIGHT, FOR JEWELS AND PRECIOUS METALS. 

z lb. = 12 oz. = 24 carats = 240 pennyweight (dwt.) = 5760 grains ; 

I oz. = 2 carats = 20 dwts. = 480 grains ; 

I carat = 10 dwts. = 240 grains ; 

I dwt. = s>4 grains. 

II. Measures. 

A. LINEAR. 

X mile = 8 furlongs (frigs.) = 80 chains = ^^.o rods = 5280 feet ;+ 
X furlong = 10 chains = 40 rods = 660 feet ; 

I chain = 4 rods = 66 feet ; 

I rod = i6i feet; 
I chain = 100 links ; 

I link = 7.92 inches; 
X yard = 3 feet = 36 inches ; 
I foot = 12 inches. 

B. SURFACE. 
I square mile =2 640 acres ; 

I acre = 10 square chains = 160 sq. rods = 4840 sq. ydi 

= 43,560 square feet. 

* I long ton = 20 imperial hundredweights (cwt ) = 2240 pounds. 
t I sea mile (Admiralty knot) = 6080 feet, or 1.1515 statute mile. 



310 GENTERAL TOPICS. 

C. CAPACITY. 

I. DRY MEASURE. 

I bushel = the volume of 77.627 lbs. of distilled water at 4*0.; 

I bushel =. 4 pecks = 8 gallons = 32 quarts = 2150.4 cubic inches; 

1 peck = 2 gallons = 8 quarts = 537-6 " " 

I gallon = 4 quarts = 268.8 " " 

I quart = 67.2 " '* 

2. LIQUID MEASURE. 

1 gallon = the volume of 8.3388832 lbs. = 58,373 troy grains of distilled 

water at 4° C; 
I gallon = 4 quarts = 8 pints = 32 gills = 231 cubic inches ; 
I quart = 2 pints = 8 gills = 57.75 " " 

I pint = 4 gills = 28.88 " " 

Metric System of Weights and Measures. 

I. LINEAR MEASURES. 
1 meter (m) = 10 decimeters (dm)= 100 centimeters (cm) = 1000 millimeter 
(mml = .1 decameters (Dm) = .01 Hectometer (Hm) = .001 Kilometci 
(Km) = .0001 Myriameter (Mm). 

I Mm = 10 Km = 100 Hm = 1000 Dm = 10,000 m; 
I Km = 10 Hm = 100 Dm = 1,000 m; 

I Hm = 10 Dm = 100 m; 

I Dm = zo m ; 
I m s 10 dm = 100 cm = 1000 mm ; 
X dm = 10 cm = 100 mm; 
I cm = 10 mm. 

2. SURFACE MEASURES. 
I Are (a) = 100 square meters (sq. m.) = .oi hectare (ha) ; 
I Are = I sq. Dm. = 100 square m ; 
I sq. Km = 100 Ha = 10,000 A = 1,000,000 sq. m ; 
I Ha = 100 A = 10,000 sq. m ; 
I A = 100 sq. m. 

3. MEASURES OF CAPACITY. 
t liter (1) = I cubic decimeter (cdm) = 1,000 cubic centimeters (c. c.) = 
o.ooi cubic meter (cbm) = 10 deciliters (dl) = 100 centiliters (cl) = ,ox 
hectoliter (hi). 

I HI = 10 Dl = 100 1 = 1,000 dl = 10,000 cl ; 
I Dl = 10 1 = 100 dl = 1,000 cl; 

I I = 10 dl =s 100 cL 

4. WEIGHTS. 

1 kilogram (kg) = 100 decagrams (Dg) = 1000 grams (g); 
I gram = 10 decigrams (ajj; = too centigrams (cg)= i,ooo milliiT'rams (mg); 
t ton = 1000 Kg = TOO, 000 Dg = 1,000,000 g ; 
100 Kg = 10,000 Dg = 100.000 g ; 
I Kg = 100 Dg = 1,000 g. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES* 



311 



Conversion of U. S. Weights and Measures to Metric, 
and vice versa. 



LINEAR. 





Inches to 

Millimeters. 
= 25.4001 


Feet to Meters. 
.3048 


Yards to Meters. 
.9144 


Miles to 

Kilometers. 

1.6094 




Meter to 

Inches. 

= 39-3700 


Meter to Feet. 
3.2808 


Meter to Yards. 
1.0936 


Kilometer to 
Miles. 
.6214 






SQUARE. 






Sq. Inches to 
Sq. Centmr. 
^ 6.452 


Sq. Feet to Sq. 

Decimeters. 

9.290 


Square Yards to 

Square Meters. 

.836 


Acres to 

Hectares. 

.4047 




Sq. Centime, 
to sq. in. 

= .1550 


Sq. Meters 
to Sq. Feet. 
10.764 


Square Meters 

to Square Yards. 

1. 196 


Hectares to 
Acres. 

2.471 






CUBIC. 






Cubic In. to 
Cu. Centmr. 
= 16.387 


Cubic Feet to 
Cubic Meters. 
.0283 


Cubic Yards to 
Cubic Meters. 

.765 


Bushels to 
Hectoliters. 

•3524 




Cu. Centmrs 
to Cubic In. 
= .0610 


Cu. Decimeters 
to Cubic Inches. 
61.023 


Cubic Meters to 
Cubic Feet. 

35.314 


Cubic Meters to 

Cubic Yards. 

1.308 






CAPACITY. 






Fluid Drams 
to Cu. Centi- 
meters. 

= 3-70 


Fluid Ounces to 
Cubic Centimeter. 

29-57 


Quarts to Liters. 
.9464 


Gallons to Liters. 
3.7854 




Cu. Centi- 
meters to 
Fluid Drams. 


Centiliters to 
Fluid Ounces. 1 


Liters Decaliters to Hectoliters 
to Quarts. Gallons. to Bushels. 




= .27 


.338 


1.0567 2.6417 2.8377 






WEIGHT. 






Grains to 
Milligrams. 

= 64.7989 


Avoirdupois 
Ounces to Grams. 

28.3495 


Avoirdupois 
Pounds to Kilo- 
Grams. 

.4536 


Troy Ounces 
to Grams. 
31.1035 




Milligrams 
to Grains. 

= .01543 


Kilograms to 
Grains. 
15432.36 


Hectograms to 
Ounces Av. 

3-5274 


Kilograms to 

Pounds Av. 

2.2046 




Oirintals to 
Pounds Av. 
= 220.46 


Milliers or Tonnes 
to Pounds Av. 
2204.6 


Kilograms to 
Ounces Troy. 

32.1507 



312 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



KILOGRAMS CONVERTED INTO POUNDS 
AVOIRDUPOIS. 



Kilos. 


o 


I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


o.o 


.ocx> 


.022 


.044 


.066 


.088 


.110 


.132 


•154 


.176 


.194 


.1 


.220 


•243 


.265 


.287 


•309 


•331 


-353 


•375 


-397 


.419 


.2 


.441 


•463 


.485 


•507 


•529 


•551 


•573 


•595 


.617 


-639 


•3 


.661 


.683 


•70s 


.728 


-750 


.772 


•794 


.816 


.838 


.860 


•4 


.882 


.904 


.926 


.948 


.970 


-992 


1. 014 


1.036 


1.058 


1.080 


•5 


1. 102 


1. 124 


1.146 


1. 168 


1. 190 


1. 213 


1-235 


i-'-257 


T.279 


1-301 


.6 


1-323 


1-345 


1.367 


1-389 


1. 411 


I 433 


1-455 


1-477 


1.499 


1-521 


•7 


1-543 


1-565 


1-587 


1.609 


1. 631 


1-653 


1.676 


1.698 


1.720 


1.742 


.8 


1.764 


1.786 


1.808 


1.830 


1.852 


1.874 


1.896 


1.918 


t.940 


1.962 


•9 


1.984 


2.006 


2.028 


2.050 


2.072 


2.094 


2. 116 


2.138 


2. 161 


2 183 





POUNDS CONVERTED INTO KILOGRAMS 




Pounds. 





I 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


7 


8 


9 


0.0 


.000 


005 


.009 


.014 


.018 


.023 


027 


.032 


.036 


.041 




1 


-045 


.050 


054 




059 


.064 


.068 


07^ 




077 


.082 


.086 




2 


.091 


-095 


.100 




104 


.109 


•"3 


118 




122 


.127 


132 




3 


-i3t> 


.141 


-145 




150 


•154 


-159 


163 




168 


.172 


.177 




4 


.181 


.186 


.191 




195 


.200 


.204 


209 




213 


.218 


.222 




5 


.227 


•231 


-236 




240 


-245 


.249 


254 




259 


.263 


.268 




t 


.272 


.277 


.281 




286 


.290 


-295 


299 




304 


.308 


•313 




7 


.318 


.322 


-327 




331 


-336 


•340 


345 




349 


•354 


• 3S8 




8 


-363 


-367 


-371 




376 


• 381 


.386 


390 




395 


•399 


.404 


-9 


.408 


-413 


.417 


.422 


.426 


-431 


435 


.440 


-445 


■449. 



INCHES REDUCED TO DECI3IALS OF A FOOT. 

(Trautvvine.) 



Ins. 


Foot. 


Ins. 


Foot. 


Ins. F 


'oot. 


Ins. 
6 


Foot. 

.5000 


Ins. 


Foot. 


sV 


.0026 




-0833 


2 


1667 


10 


■8333 


IB 


.0052 


i^ 


.0938 


2^ 


2083 


6^ 


•5417 


10}^, 


.8750 


/^ 


.0104 


^^4 


.1042 


3 


2500 


7 


.5833 


11 


.9167 


k 


.0208 


1% 


.1146 


3H 


2917 


7^ 


.6250 


"5^ 


•9583 


f^ 


• 0313 


1^3 


• 1250 


4 


3333 


8 


.6667 


12 


1. 0000 


^ 


.0417 


1^ 


-1354 


4J^ 


3750 


8I/3 


.7083 






% 


.0521 


i^ 


.1458 


5 


4167 


9 


.7500 






% 


.0625 


i'^ 


-1563 


5^ 


4583 


9^ 


.7917 






^ 


.0729 



















OUNCES REDUCED TO DECIMALS OF A POUND. 



I oz. 


= 


.06 lb 


2 " 


= 


•13 " 


3 " 


= 


•^9 " 


4 


= 


• 25 


.■> ' 


= 


•31 


6 " 


= 


.38 " 


I \[ 


= 


•43 ' 


8 " 


= 


.50 " 



9 oz. = 


■;6 1b. 


10 " = 


63 " 


II " — 


6q " 


12 " = 


■I' u 


13 " = 


.81 •' 


14 " = 


88 " 


IS " = 


94 " 


16 " = 


I " 



WEIGHTS AKD MEASURES. 



313 



COMPARISONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THERMOMETER 
SCALES. 



Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
! grade. 


Reaumur. 


-|-2I2 


+100 


-1-80 


+158 


+70 


+56 


211 


99.44 


79-56 


157 


69.44 


55.56 


2IO 


98.89 


79. n 


156 


68.89 


55." 


»P9 


98.33 


78.67 


155 


68.33 


54.67 


208 


97.78 


78.22 


154 


67-78 


54.22 


207 


97.22 


77.78 


153 


67.22 


53 78 


206 


96.67 


77-33 


152 


66.67 


53-33 


205 


96.11 


76.89 


151 


66.11 


52.89 


204 


95-55 


76.44 


150 


65.55 


52.44 


203 


95 


76 


149 


65 


52 


202 


94.44 


75-56 


148 


64.44 


51-56 


201 


93 89 


75-11 


147 


63-89 


51." 


200 


93 33 


74.67 


146 


63 33 


50-67 


199 


92.78 


74.22 


145 


62.78 


50.22 


198 


92.22 


73-78 


144 


62.22 


49.78 


197 


91.67 


73-33 


143 


61.67 


49-33 


196 


91. II 


72.89 


142 


61. II 


48.89 


195 


90-55 


72.44 


141 


60.55 


48-44 


194 


90 


72 


140 


60 


48 


193 


89.44 


71-56 


139 


59-44 


47-56 


192 


88.89 


71. II 


138 


58.89 


47.11 


igi 


88.33 


70.67 


137 


58.33 


46.67 


I go 


87.78 


70.22 


136 


5778 


46.22 


189 


87.22 


69.78 


135 


57.32 


45.78 


188 


86.67 


69 -33 


134 


56-67 


45-33 


187 


86.11 


68.89 


133 


56.11 


44.89 


186 


85.55 


68.44 


132 


55.55 


44.44 


185 


85 


68 


131 


55 


44 


184 


84.44 


67.56 


130 


54-44 


43-56 


183 


83.89 


67.11 


129 


53.89 


43-" 


182 


83.33 


66.67 


128 


53-33 


42.67 


181 


82.78 


66.22 


127 


52-78 


42.22 


1 80 


82.22 


65-78 


126 


52.22 


41.78 


179 


81.67 


65.33 


125 


51 67 


41.33 


178 


81. II 


64.89 


124 


51-11 


40.89 


177 


80.55 


64.44 


123 


50.55 


40.44 


176 


80 


64 


122 


50 


40 


175 


79-44 


63-56 


121 


49-44 


39 56 


174 


78.89 


63.11 


120 


48.89 


39.11 


173 


78.33 


62.67 


119 


48-33 


38-67 


172 


77.78 


62.22 


118 


47-78 


38.22 


171 


77.22 


61.78 


117 


47.22 


37.78 


170 


76.67 


61-33 


116 


46.67 


37.33 


169 


76.11 


60.89 


"5 


46.11 


36.89 


168 


75-55 


60.44 


114 


45-55 


36-44 


167 


75 


60 


"3 


45 


36 ^ 


166 


74-44 


59-56 


112 


44-44 


35 56 


165 


73 89 


59-11 


III 


43 89 


35.11 


164 


72.33 


58.67 


110 


43-33 


34.67 


163 


72.78 


58.22 


109 


42.78 


34.22 


162 


71.23 


57-78 


108 


42.22 


33.78 


161 


71.67 


57-33 


107 


41.67 


33-33 


x6o 


71.11 


56.89 


106 


4111 


32.89 


159 


70-55 


56.44 


los 


40.55 


32.44 



314 



GENERAL TOPICS- 



COMPARISONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THERMOMETER 

SCAIjES.— Continued. 



1 



Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


Fah'-en- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


+104 


+40 


+32 


+50 


4-10 


+8 


103 


39-44 


31 -.56 


49 


9.44 


7.56 


102 


38.89 


31. II 


48 


8.89 


7. II 


lOI 


38-33 


30.67 


47 


8.33 


6.67 


100 


37.78 


30.22 


46 


7.78 


6.22 


99 


37.22 


29.78 


45 


7.22 


5-78 


98 


36.67 


29-33 


44 


6.67 


5-33 


97 


36.11 


28.89 


43 


6. II 


4.89 


96 


35-55 


28.44 


42 


5.55 


4-44 


95 


35 


28 


41 


5 


4 


94 


34-44 


27.56 


40 


4-44 


3.56 


93 


33-89 


27.11 


39 


3.89 


3-" 


92 


33-33 


26.67 


38 


3-33 


2.67 


91 


32.78 


26.22 


37 


2.78 


2.22 


90 


32.22 


25.78 


36 


2.22 


1.78 


89 


3167 


25-33 


35 


1.67 


1-33 


88 


3I-" 


24.89 


34 


I. II 


0.89 


87 


30-55 


24.44 


33 


0.55 


0.44 


86 


30 


24 


32 








85 


29.44 


23.56 


31 


-0.55 


-0.44 


84 


28.89 


23.11 


30 


I. II 


0.89 


83 


28.33 


22.67 


29 


1.67 


1-33 


82 


27.78 


22.22 


28 


2.22 


1.78 


81 


27 22 


21.78 


27 


2.78 


2.22 


80 


26.67 


21-33 


26 


3-33 


2.67 


7§ 


26.11 


20.89 


as 


3-89 


3-" 


•78 


25-55 


20.44 


24 


4.44 


3-56 


77 


25 


20 


23 


5 


4 


76 


24.44 


19.56 


22 


5.55 


4.44 


75 


23.89 


19. II 


21 


6. II 


4.89 


74 


23.33 


18.67 


20 


6.67 


S-33 


73 


22.78 


18.22 


19 


7.22 


5.78 


72 


22.22 


17.78 


18 


7.78 


6.22 


71 


21.67 


17-33 


17 


8.33 


6.67 


70 


21. II 


16.89 


16 


8.89 


7. II 


69 


20-55 


16.44 


15 


9.44 


7.56 


68 


20 


16 


14 


10 


8 


67 


19.44 


15-56 


13 


10.55 


8.44 


66 


18.89 


15. II 


12 


II. II 


8.89 


65 


18.33 


14.67 


II 


11.67 


9-33 


64 


17.78 


14.22 


10 


12.22 


9.78 


63 


17.22 


13.78 


g 


12.78 


10 22 


62 


16.67 


13.33 


8 


13-33 


10.67 


61 
60 


16.11 


12.89 


7 


13.89 


II. II 


15 -55 


12.44 


6 


14.44 


11.56 


59 


15 


12 


5 


15.00 


12 


58 


14.44 


11.56 


4 


15.55 


12.44 


57 


13.89 


II. 11 


3 


16. II 


12.89 


56 


13-33 


10.67 


2 


16.67 


13-33 


55 


12.78 


10.22 


I 


17.22 


13-78 


54 


12 22 


9.78 





17.78 


14.22 


53 


11.67 


9-33 


— I 


18.33 


14.67 


52 


II. 11 


8.89 


2 


18.89 


15 II 


51 


10.55 


8.44 


3 


19.44 


15 •56 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



315 



COMPARISONS OF FAHRENHEIT, CENTIGRADE 
(CELSIUS), AND REAUMUR THER3I03IETER 

SCALES. — Continued. 



Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


Fahren- 
heit. 


Centi- 
grade. 


Reaumur. 


—4 


—20 


-16 


-23 


-30-55 


-24.44 


5 


20.55 


16.44 


24 


31. II 


24.89 


6 


21. II 


16.89 


25 


31 67 


25-33 


7 


21.67 


1733 


26 


32.22 


25-78 


8 


22.22 


17.78 


27 


32.78 


26.22 


9 


22.78 


18. 22 


28 


33-33 


26.67 


zo 


23-33 


18.67 


29 


33-89 


27.11 


II 


23-89 


19. II 


30 


34-n 


27.56 


12 


24.44 


19.56 


31 


35 


28 


J3 


25 


20 


32 


35-55 


28.44 


14 


25-55 


20.44 


33 


36.11 


28.89 


15 


26.11 


20.89 


34 


36.67 


29 -33 


16 


26.67 


21.33 


35 


37-22 


29.78 


17 


27.22 


21.78 


36 


37-78 


30.22 


18 


27.78 


22.22 


37 


38-3: 


30.67 


19 


28.33 


22.67 


38 


38.89 


31. II 


20 


28.89 


23.11 


39 


39-44 


31-56 


21 


29.44 


23.56 


40 


40 


32.00 


22 


30 


24 









Formula for Converting Degrees Centigrade to Fahrenheit, and 
vice versa : 

«°C. = (^^ + 32)*F.; 



,. F. = (!(!!lz-3i>\ c. 

\ 9 / 



For Degrees Re'aunnir, substitute 4 for the figure 5 in the 
preceding formulas. 



316 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



GOVEIINMENT LAND MEASURES. 

In the system of government survey, lines running north 
and south are drawn parallel to a fixed line (principal me- 
ridian) at a distance of six miles apart ; these are called 
range lines. At right angles with these, other parallel lines 
{town lilies) are drawn, which then run east and west. The 
two sets of lines form squares containing 36 square miles 
each, called townships. A certain number of townships 
form a county. Each square mile of a township is called a 
section, containing 640 acres, and these are numbered regu- 
larly I to 36, commencing at the northeast corner, as shown 
in the accompanying diagram. Section 16 in each township 
is set apart for school purposes. 

Sections are divided by lines running north and south, 
and east and west, into quarter sections, designated as the 
northeast quarter, northwest quarter, southwest quarter, 
and south-east quarter of the section. These quarters con- 
tain 160 acres of land each, and are again divided into 
quarters, each containing forty acres, which is the smallest 
sub-division recognized in government survey. Lands are 
usually sold in tracts of forty acres, or a multiple thereof, 
except in case of land bordering on lakes, which are frac- 
tional sections and may contain more or less than forty 
acres. These are called government lots. 



TOWNSHIP. 



SECTION. 



6 

7 


5 
8 


4 
9 


3 


2 


I 


10 


II 


12 


18 


17 


16 


15 


14 


13 


19 


20 


21 


22 


23 


24 


30 


29 


28 


27 


26 


25 
36 


31 


32 


33 


34 


35 



N. W. 
Quarter. 


NWM 

of 
NEM 


NEix4 

of 
NE14 


SW14 

of 
NE^ 


SE1.4 
of 

NEM 


S. W. 
Quarter. 


S. E. 
Quarter. 



The description of a 40-acre lot would then, for example, 
read as follows : The northeast quarter of the northeast 
quarter of section i in township 24 north, range 7 west. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 317 

TO MEASURE CORN ON THE COB IN CRIBS. 

(Waring.) 

When the Crib is Equilateral. 

Rule. — Multiply the length in inches by the breadth in 
inches, and that again by the height in inches, and divide the 
product by 2748 (the number of cubic inches in a heaped bushel), 
and the quotient will be the number of bushels of ears. Take 
two thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled 
corn. 

Example. — Required the number of bushels of shelled corn 
contained in a crib of ears, 15 ft. long by 5 ft. wide and 10 ft 
high. 

Solution: 180 in. (length) X 60 in. (width) X 120 in. (height) 
= 1,296,000 -f- 2748 = 471.6 heaped bushels, two thirds of which 
is 314.6 bushels, shelled. 

When the Crib is Flared at the Sides. 

Multiply half the sum of the top and bottom widths in inches 
by the perpendicular height in inches, and that again by the 
length in inches, and divide the product by 2748; the quotient 
will be the number of heaped bushels of ears. Take two 
thirds of the quotient for the number of bushels of shelled corn. 



318 



GENERx\L TOPICS. 



LEGAL. AVEIGHTS OF GRAIN, SEEDS, ETC, 

The table shows the number of pounds per bushel re- 
quired by law or custom, in the sale of articles specified, in 
the several States of the Union. 



States. 



Maine 

New Hampshire 

Vermont. 

Massachusetts 

Rhode Island. 

Connecticut . ... 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pen nsyl vania 

Delaware.. 

Maryland 

District of Columbia. 

Virginia 

West Virg-inia 

North Carolina 

South Carolina 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

South Dakota 

North Dakota . ...... 

Montana 

Colorado 

Idaho 

Washington 

California 

Oregon 

Oklahoma 



47 



47 



47 



50 



80 



80 



70 






Ui U 



50 



50 



52 32 
...:32 

52! 32 
52' 32 
50, 32 
50 j 32 
32 
30 
30 



57 



26 
32 
32 
32 

30 
32 
57 1 32 
57! 32 
57 32 
••32 
• • • 32 
571 32 
57 1 32 
56 1 32 
57 1 32 
55 32 
54 32 
48 32 
57 32 
57 32 
57 32 
57 32 
57 32 
57 32 
52 32 
52 32 
57 32 
57 32 
32 
36 
32 
32 
36 
52 



70 



85 



60 



60 



50 



60 



oq 



45 



60 45 

64 45 

60 45 

64... 

6o|... 

60 

60 

60 

60 



6oj 45 
60 45 
60 42 
60! 42 
60 
60 
60 



40 



42 



WECGHTS AND MEASURES. 310 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 

(Trautwine.) 




Aluminum 

Anthracite, 1.3-1,84, usually 

" broken, of any size, loose 

(A ton, loose, averages from 40 to 43 cubic feet.) 
Ash, American white, dry 

" " " perfectly dry 

Asphaltum, 1-1.8 

Boxwood, dry 

Brass (copper and zinc) cast, 7.8-8.4 

Bronze (copper 8 parts, tin i part, gun metal), 8.4- 
8.6 

Cement, English Portland 

Charcoal, of pines and oaks 

Cherry, perfectly dry 

Chestnut, perfectly dry 

Coal, bituminous 1.2-1.5 

broken, of any size, loose 

(A ton occupies from 43 to 48 cubic feet.) 

Copper, cast, 8.6-8,8 

Cork ,... 

Coke, loose, of good coal 

{A ton occupies 80 to 97 cubic feet.) 

Elm, perfectly dry 

Fat 

Glass, 2.5-3.45 

Gold, cast, pure 

Gravel, about the same as sand, which see. 

Hemlock, perfectly dry 

Hickory, perfectly dry 

Ice, .gi7-.922 

India rubber 

Iron, cast, 6.9-7,4 ° 

Lard 

Lead, 11. 38-11. 47 

Lime, quick 

" " ground loose, per struck bu. 62-72 lbs.. 
Limestone and marbles 

Mahogaiiy, Spanish, dry 

Maple, dry 

Mercury, at 6o<» F 

Oak, white, perfecly dry, .66-.88 



19 



13 



6 
5 

61 

752 

4 

96 



672 

66 

35 



56 
93 

258 



•77 



Average 
Weight of 
I cu. foot, 
in Pounds. 



162. 
93-5 
52-56 

38. 
47- 
83-3 

60. 
504- 

529- 

81-103 

15 3& 

42. 

41. 

84. 

47-52 

.■5f2. 
15- ' 
23-32 



35- 
58. 

^304. 



4 
85 


25- 

53- 


92 
93 
15 


446. 


95 
38 
5 


59-3 
709.6 

95- 


6 


164.4 


85 
79 
58 


53- 

49- 

846. 



48. 



320 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



n 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY OF VARIOUS SUBSTANCES. 

Conit'm/et^. 



Oak, red, black, etc. 

'* live, .88-1.02. . . 

Oils, olive, whale... 



Peat 

Petroleum . 

Pinii, white, perfectly dry, .35-.45. 

" vellow^. Northern, .48 to .62. 

" " Southern, .64-.80. .. 
Platinum, 21-22. . 



Quartz common, pure, 2.64-2.67. 
Rosin 



Salt, coarse, per struck bu., Syracuse, N. Y., 56 lbs. 
Sand of pure quartz, dry and loose, per struck bu. 

112-133 't)s 

Sand ot pure quartz, wet 

Silver 

Snow, fresh fallen 

" moistened and compacted by rain 

Soils, common loam, perfectly dry, loose 

Soils, common loam, perfectly dry, moderately 

rammed 

Soils, common loam, slightly moist, loose 

" " " as a soft, flowing mud 

Spruce, perfectly dry 

Sulphur. 

Steel, 7.7-7.9 

Sycamore, perfectly dry 

Tar 

Tin, cast 



Walnut, perfectly dry 

Water, pure rain or distilled, at 32° F. (barometer 

30 in-) 

Water, pure rain or i tilled, at 62° F. (barometer 

30 in.) 

Water, pure rain or distilled water at 212° F. 

(barometer 30 in.) 

Water, sea, 1.026-1.030 

Wax, bees' 



Zinc, 6.8-7.2. 



Average 
Specific 
Gravity. 



10.5 



•4 
2.0 

785 
•59 

i.o 

7-35 

.61 



I.02g 

•97 



7.0 



Average 

Weight of 

I cu. foot, 

in Pounds. 



32-45 
59-3 

57-3 

20-30 
54-8 

25- 

34-3 
45 • 
1342. 

i6s 

68.6 

45- 

90-106 
118-129 

655. 
5-12 
15-20 
72-80 

go-ioo 

70-76 
104-112 

25. 
125. 
490. 

37- 

62.4 
459- 

38. 

62.417 

62.3SS 

59-7 

64.08 

60.5 

437-5 



Note.— Green timbers usually weigh from one fifth to nearly one hali 
more than dry and ordinary building timbers when tolerably seasoned; 
about one sijcth more than perfectly dry. 



WEIGHTS AND MEASURES. 



321 



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322 



GENERAL TOPICS. 
Fluciuaiing Currency. 



Bolivia 

Central America.. 

China 

Colombia 

Ecuador 

India . . 

Japan \ 

Mexico 

Peru 

Russia \ 

Tripoli 



Silver 
Silver 

Silver 

Silver 
Silver 
Silver 
Gold (nominally) 
Silver 
Silver 

Silver 

Silver (nominally) 

gold 

Silver 



Boliviano (= loo centavos) 
Peso 

Shanghai tael 

Haikwan tael (customs) 

Peso 

Peso 

Rupee (= i6 annas) 

>■ Yen (= loo sens) \ 

Dollar (peso) (= loo centa- 
vos) 
Sol (= loo centesimos) 

>• Ruble (= loo kopecks) \ 

Mahbub (= 20 piasters) 



about 

$-49i3 

•49,3 

•79,3 

.81,1 

•49«3 
•49.3 
•23,4 
•99i7 
.53,0 
•53v5 

•49,3 
•77,2 
39.5 
•44,5 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



323 



IV. ST/VTISTICAL TABLES. 

AREA AND POPULATION OF THK UNITED 

STATES, 1890. (Eleventh Census.) 



States. 


Area in 
Sq. Miles. 


Popula- 
tion. 


States. 


Area in 
Sq. Miles. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Alabama 

Arizona 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut 

Delaware 

Disl. of Colum. 
Florida 


52,250 
113,020 

53,850 
158,360 

103,925 

4,990 

2,050 

70 

58,680 

59,475 
84,800 
56,650 
36,350 
31,400 -j 

56,025 
82,080 
40,400 
48.720 
33,040 
12,210 
8,315 
58,9»5 
83,365 
46,810 

69,415 
146,080 


1,513,017 

59,620 

1,128, t7g 

1,208,130 

412,198 

746,258 

168,493 

230,392 

391,422 

1,837,353 

84,385 

3,826,351 

2,192,404 

182.984 

58,385* 
1,911,896 
1,427,096 
1,858,635 
1,118.587 

661,086 
1,042,390 
2,238,943 
2,093,889 
1,301,826 
1,289,600 
2,679,184 

132,159 


Nebraska 

Nevada 

N'wHampshire 
New -Jersey.. 
New Mexico. . 

New York 

N. Carolina... . 

N. Dakota 

Ohio 


77,510 

110,700 

9,305 

7,815 

122,580 

49,170 

52,250 

70,795 
41,060 

39,030 
96,030 

45,215 

1,250 

30,570 

77,650 

42,050 

265,780 

84,970 

9,565 

42,450 

69,180 

24,780 

56,040 

97,890 


1,058,910 
45,761 

376.350 
1,444,933 

153,593 
5,997,853 
1,617,947 

182,719 

3,67^,316 

61,834 

313,767 

5,258,014 

345,506 

1,151,149 

328,808 

1,767,518 

2,235,523 
207,905 
332,422 

1,655,980 
349,390 
762,794 

1,686,880 
60,705 


Georgia 

Idaho 


Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania.. 
Rhode Island.. 

S. Carolina 

S. Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 


Illinois 

Indiana 

Indian Ter 

Iowa 


Kansas 

Kentucky 

Louisiana 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts. 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana 


Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington. . . 
W. Virginia. . . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 

Total 


3,602,990 


62,682,250 



* Indians on reservations in various states and territories. 



AREA AND POPULATION OF CANADA, 1891. 



Provinces 

and 
Districts. 


Area in 
Sq. Miles. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Provinces 

and 
Districts. 


Area in 
Sq. Miles. 


Popula- 
tion. 


Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

NewBrunsvvick 
Manitoba 


21,950 
227,^00 
20,550 
28,100 
64,066 


2,1 14.321 

1,488,535 
450,396 
321,263 
152,506 


Brit. Columbia. 
Pr. Ed. Island. 
The Territories 

Total....... 


382,300 

2,000 

2.371,481 


98,173 
109,078 
98,967 


3,415,647 


4,833,239 



324 



GEKEKAL TOPICS. 



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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



325 



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326 GENEliAL TOPICS. 

METEOROLOGICAL. DATA FOR CANADA. 



Province or City. 



Ontario 

Quebec t 

New Brunswick 

Nova Scotia 

Prince Edward Island 

Manitoba 

British Columbia 

Toronto 

Montreal 

St. John, N. B 

Halifax, N, S 



Normal Mean Temperature of the Air. 



Monthly Temperature. 



Lowest. 



19.3° F. 

13-5 
16. 1 



14.7 
0.6 
22.8 
22.9 
16.8 
18.4 
22.9 



Highest. 



69.8° F. 

70.2 

62.8 

63.3 

64 -3 

65 9 

72.2 

67.4 

72.2 

59-7 

63-5 



Mean for the 
Year. 



43-8° F. 
42.6 

39-9 
41.7 

40.5 
•^2.6 



44, 
44, 
40, 
43 



Normal rainfall in inches per year : Toronto 29.42, Windsor 23.78, 
Peterborough 20.55, Montreal 27.26, Quebec 19.26, St. John 33.27, Halifax 
43.08, Glace Bay 55.49, Sydney 49.42, Winnipeg 16.83, Spence's Bridge 3.88. 



COMPARISON OF LEADING INDUSTRIES IN THE 
UNITED STATES. (U. S. Census of 1890, in Round Numbers.) 



Agriculture ;. . 

Forest products, total.. 

Forest industries, enu- 
merated 

Forest products, not enu- 
merated (estimated) . . . 
Manufactures using wood 

Mineral products, total 

Coal 

Gold and silver 

Iron and steel 

Manufactures of iron and 

steel 

Leather 

Leather manufactures 

Woolen " 

Cotton " 



r: o 
■5-c 
u 



Millions. 
15,982 

562 



543 

343 
486 
414 

86 
102 
118 

297 
354 



(U 

>. 



a 

a 


CO 

be 


Sen- 


Thousands. 


Millions. 


Millions. 


8,286 






348 


102 


245 


513 


294 


442 


300 


109 




57 
176 


40 
96 


327 


60 

48 

186 


32 

25 
88 


79 
136 
153 


219 


77 


203 


222 


70 


155 



Millions. 
2,460 
1,044 

446 

598 
907 
610 
160 
99 
479 




STATISTICAL TABLES. 



327 



FARMING POPULATION OF THE UNITED STATES, 

1870, 1880, and 1890. 

Ninth Tenth Eleventh 

Census. Census. Census. 

Total population 38,558,371 50,152,866 62,622,250 

Total engaged in agriculture 5,992,471 7,670,493 9,013,201* 

Total in professional and personal 

services 2,684,793 4,074,238 5,304.829 

Tota4 in manufactures and mining. 2,707,421 3,837,112 5,091,669+ 

Total in trade and transportation... 1,191,238 1,810,256 3,325,962 

Engaged in all classes of occupa- 
tions 12,375,923 17,392,099 22,735.661 

Engaged in agriculture, per cent. 48.4 44.1 39.6 



NUMBER OF FARMS IN UNITED STATES AND 
THEIR VALUE. 



(Eleventh Census.) 



States. 


No. of 
Farms. 


Alabama 


157,772 


Arizona 


1,426 


Arkansas 


124,760 


California 


52,894 


Colorado, . . . 


16,389 


Connecticut . 


26,350 


Delaware 


9,381 


Dist. of Col.. 


382 


Florida 


34,228 


Georgia 


171,071 


Idaho 


6,603 


Illinois 


240,681 


Indiana 


198,167 


Iowa. . 


201,903 


Kansas 


166,617 


Kentucky 


179,264 


Louisiana 


69,294 


Maine 


62,013 


Maryland . 


40.798 


Massachus'ts 


34,374 


Michigan 


172,344 


Minnesota. . . 


116,851 


Mississippi.. . 


144,318 


Missouri .. . 


238,043 


Montana 


5,603 


Nebraska 


113,608 



Value. 



(1x1,051,390 

7,222,230 

"8,574,422 

697,116,630 

85,035,180 

95,000,595 

39,586,080 

6,471,120 

72,745,1 
152,006,230 

17,431,580 
1,262,870,587 
754,789,110 
857.581,022 
559,726,046 
346,339,360 

85,381,270 

98,567,730 
175,058,550 
127,538,284 
556,190,670 
340,059,470 
127.423,157 
625,858,361 

25,512,340 
402,358,913 



States, 



No. of 
Farms. 



Nevada 

N.Hampshire 
New Jersey. 
New Mexico 
New York... 
N. Carolina. 
N. Dakota.. 

Ohio 

Oklahoma . . 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 
Rhode Island 
S. Carolina 
S. Dakota.. 
Tennessee.. 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont. ... 
Virginia.. .. 
Washington 
VV. Virginia. 
Wisconsin.., 
Wyoming... 



Total. 



Value. 



1,000 

29 151 

30,828 

4,458 

226,223 

178,359 
27,611 

251,430 

8,826 

25,530 

211,557 
5,500 

115,008 
50,158 

174,412 

228,126 
10,517 
32,573 

127,600 
18,056 

72,773 

146,409 

3,125 



4,564,641 



*i2,339,4io 

66,162,600 

159,262,840 

8,140,800 

968.127,286 

183,977,010 

75,310,305 

1,046,738,247 

8,581,170 

115,819,200 

922,240,233 

21,873,479 

99,104,600 

107,466,335 

242,700,540 

399,971,289 

28,402,780 

80,427,490 

254,490,600 

83,461,660 

151,880,300 

477,524,507 

14,460,880 



$13,279,252,649 



* Agriculture, fisheries, and mining. 

+ Manufacturing and mechanical industries. 



328 



GENERAL TOPICS. 





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res. . 

quipm 
acre; 

" 

over, 
er 


•a 

s 






a 




r of farms, 1890. . 
rea of farms, acres 
ed land in farms, ; 

alue of farms and 
ted value of farm 
arnings on capital 
ue of farm produc 

I 14 44 44 

e size of farms, ac 

ue per farm with e 

r of farms under 5 

50, under 10 

100, '' 501 

500, " lOOi 

1000 acres, and 
cultivated by own 
rented for money 
'• " share 






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Qi4:D 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



329 



AVERAGE AGRICULTURAL WAGES IN THE 
UNITED STATES IN 1893-1895, INCLUSIVE. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Years. 


Per Month for Sea- 
son or Year. 


Per Day in Harvest. 


Per Day other than 
Harvest. 


With 
Board. 


Without 
Board. 


With 
Board. 


Without 
Board. 


With 
Board. 


Without 
Board. 


1893 

1894 

1895 


$13.29 
12.16 
12.02 


$19.10 

17-74 
17.69 


$1.03 

•93 
.92 


S1.24 

I-I3 
1. 14 


$.69 

.63 
.62 


$.89 
.81 
.81 



VALUE OF PRINCIPAL FARM PRODUCTS OF 
THE UNITED STATES. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Products. 


1859. 


1879. 


1889. 


Total 
Value. 


Per 

Cent. 


Total 
Value. 


Per 

Cent. 


Total 
Value. 


Per 
Cent. 


Meats 

Corn 

Hay 

Dairy products. 

Wheat 

Cotton 

Poultry 

Other products* 


$300,000,000 
360,680,878 
152,671,168 
240,400,580 
124,635,545 
211,516,625 
75,000,000 
206,639,527 


17.9 

21.6 

9.1 

14.4 

7-5 
12.6 

4-5 
12.4 


$800,000,000 
694,818.304 
409,505,783 
391,131,618 
436,968,463 
271,636,121 
180,000,000 
440,438,353 


22.1 
19.2 

"•3 
10.8 
12 
7-5 
5 
12. 1 


$900,000,000 
597,018,829 
526,632,062 
411,976,522 
342,491,707 
307,008,114 
200,000,000 
472,492,249 


23.9 

159 

14.0 

II. 

9.1 

8.2 

5-3 
12.6 


Grand total. . 


1,671,544,323 


100 


3,624,498,642 


100 


3,758,5^9,483 


100 



* Other products include barley, buckwheat, fiax fiber, flaxseed, hemp, 
hops, Irish potatoes, leaf tobacco, maple sirup, maple sugar, oats, rice, 
rye, sorghum-molasses, sweet potatoes, and wool. 



330 



GENERAL TOPICS. 





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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



331 



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to N ir, o o o^ rn^ 00 r^ONQ^Ol^^ t^t^iot^ 



r^roiriO^ CJ-0 « o-vc •* t^ m invc -^oo oo On 

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332 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



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Oroio-^MrnM^-^ro cTro'-' Mt-T 



m iDoo -"l-Thpi lONOo M o lO■«^0 r--mONN "-oo o 
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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



333 



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334 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



AREA, PRODUCT, AND VALUE OF PRINCIPAL 
CROPS IN THE UNITED STATES IN 1895. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



Indian corn, bshls 

Wheat, 

Oats, 

Rye, 

Barley, *' 

Buckwheat, " 

Potatoes, " 

Tobacco, lbs 

Hay, tons. . . 

Cotton, bales* 



Total Pro- 
duction. 



2,^51,138,580 
467,102,947 

824,443,537 
27,210,070 

87,072,744 

15,3411399 

297,237)370 

491,544,000 

47,078,541 

9)476,435 



Total 

Area of 

Crop. 



Acres 

82,075,830 

34,047,332 

27,878,406 

1,890,345 

3.299,973 

763.277 

2,954,952 

633-950 

14,206,453 

23)687,950 



Total 

Value of 

Crop. 



544,985,534 

237)938,998 

163,655,068 

1 1,964,826 

29,312,413 

6,936,325 

78,984,901 

35)574,220 

393)i85,6i5 

259,164,640 



^• 


6 


3 a 


2h 


HO 


.ii< 


>u 


>^u 


. <u 


. <u 


> a 


> a 


< 


< 


Cents 




25-3 


26.2 


50.9 


^3-7 


19.9 


29.6 


44 


14.4 


33-7 


26.4 


45-2 


20.1 


26.6 


93-8 


^ 7-2 


775-4 


S8,35 


1.07 


27-35 


.40 



35 

>u 
. <u 
> a 

< 



6.64 

6.99 

5 87 

6.33 

8.88 

9.09 

26.73 

^6. 10 

"8 89 

10.94 



THE PRINCIPAL CEREAL PRODUCTS OF THE 

UNITED STATES. 
As Shown by the Census Returns, ft'oni 1850 to 1890. 



Cen- 
sus 
of 


Indian 
Corn. 


Wheat. 


Oats. 


Barley. 


Rye. 


Buck- 
wheat. 


1850 
i860 
1870 
1880 
1890 


Bushels. 
592,071,104 
838,792,742 
760,944,549 
1,754,861,525 
2,112,327,547 


Bushels. 

100,485,944 

173,104,924 

287,745,626 

459.479,505 

468,373,968 


Bushels. 

146,584,179 
172,643,185 
282,107,157 
407,858,999 
809,250,666 


Bushels. 

5,167.015 
15,825.898 
29,761,305 
44,113)495 
78,332)976 


Bushels. 

14,188,813 
21,101.380 
16,918.795 
19,831,595 
28,421,398 


Bushels. 

8,956,912 
17,571,818 

9,821,721 
11,817,327 
12,110,349 



I 



PRODUCTION OF VARIOUS CROPS IN CANADA, 

1891. (Census of 1891.) 



Turnips and other 

roots 49,555,902 bu. 

Grass and clover 340,650 '* 

Fruits, grapes, etc 68,864,181 lbs. 

Tobacco 4,277,936 " 

Hops 1,126,230 " 

Flaxseed 137,015 bu. 



Wheat ... 42,144,779 bu 

Barley 17,148,198 

Oats. 82,515,413 

Rye 1,328,322 

Peas and beans 15,514.836 

Buckwheat 4,886,122 

Corn (maize) 10,675,886 

Potatoes 52,653,704 

Area of improved land in Canada, 1891 28,537,242 acres. 

" " " " under crop 19,904,826 " 

" " gardens and orchards 464,462 " 

" "pastures 15,284,788 " 

* Crop of 1894. 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



335 



AVERAGE COST PEU ACRE OF RAISING WHEAT 
AND CORN IN THE UNITED STATES, 1893.* 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 

Wheat. Corn. 

Rent of land I2.81 $3.03 

Manure 2.16 1.86 

Preparing ground 1.87 1.62 

Seed 96 .... 

Sowing or planting 37 .42 

Cultivating 1.80 

Harvesting or gathering 1.19 1.22 

Thrashing 1.20 

Housing 37 .50 

Marketing 76 1.26 

Total $11.69 $11.71 



AVERAGE FARM PRICE OF VARIOUS AGRICUL- 
TURAL PRODUCTS ON DEC. 1 IN EACH YEAR 
FROM 1886 TO 1895. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Crop. 


1886 

s 


1887. 

s 


1888. 


1889. 


1890. 


1891. 


1892. 


1893. 


1894. 

s 


.895. 




$ 


% 


3p 55 


s 


s 


.$ 


Corn per bushel. . . . 


-^66 


444 0.341 


0.283 


0. c;o6 


0.406 


0.393 


0.365 


0.457 


0.253 


Wheat " 


0.687 


0.681 0.926 


698 


8-,8 


0.839 


0.624 


0.538 


0.491 


0.509 


Rye " ... . 


0-531 


0.544 0.591 


0.457 


o.r'20 


0.774 


0.548 


0.513 


0.501 


0.440 


Oats " 


o.2q8 


304 0.278 


0.230 


424 


o-3'5 


0-317 


0.294 


0.324 


D.T99 


Barley " 


OS 30 


0.522 


0.596 


427 


0.648 


0.540 


0.472 


0.4II 


0.442 


0-337 


Buckwheat per bush. 


O.S44 


0.561 


0.636 0.518 


577 


0.579 


0.534 


o.5«3 


0.556 


0.452 


Irish potatoes " 


0.450 


0.685 


0.404 


0.403 


0.777 


0.371 


0.673 


590 


O..S.36 


0.266 


Hay per ton. ...... 


7.36 


9-34 




7.88 


7.71 


«.3q 


8.49 


8.68 


8.54 


»..35 


Cotton per lb. 


0.081 


0.085 


0.085 


0.083 0.086 


0.073 


0.084 


0.070 


0.046 


0.076 


Leaf tobacco per lb. . 


0.069 


0.103 




0.071 


0.077 


0.084 




0.081 


0.068 


0.069 



* Consolidated from returns from nearly 30,000 leading farmers scattered 
throughout the United States. 



336 



be 
<! 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



(U o 



t-. t^ t-^oo a\oo vo t~^ >0 lorom-J-fON N ro 






<:o- 



y. 



<5- 



■^ lO t^ •* tv -^ N 



I vo i^ rove cj c^ CO c^ 



oovooo O -^miAroroNOO mt^u-, -r u~,oO o 
vo >- o cr jv -.^ ov u' rooo 0\ 



romNNTi-cioc-iN 



lo ro N Lo I 



-1- t^ t^ M o^ 



ro 1-1 0) fO 



oo two Tj-ioro-T'!**r^'^0^0 lO-^OO rovo 



M forow lOcoio-Tt- 



t^ Tf ■- N r^:VO N f--vo -t t^ invO XI t- 01 Ov O 

t^ Ov t^ t^vo o ro -1-vO t^ t^ ro tJ-oo « ro ro t~» 
Qvo -1-uot^N p) ror^-— Tj-vo o ro t^ ro ■^00 
N t^c<r ■*■ tJ-vc' lOcTti-^d^u-. cTcvn ttoo ro 
OvN int^cj ro-^O Tj-roi/";vo r^ci — w O 0> 
MMOM w'^NCT' H-ooiiroi-irow 



u 4; 
<U u 








•OJHNt^NOMOOOvOvO 
.•^iDf^.OOooror^LDOi-'"! 

• Ov^OVO »^ lOOrot^irjrOH 

• "^00 vo vo vo LO in r^vo vo ui lo 


I.' 
S 








• ^vc o^ c> roco o mo r- in r^ 

• t^oo O vo >- 'i-vo in -r in On t^ 

• vooo mww Noo 0\ roi-oo 
! -^ t^vo >n roco 6 in>0 00 tC rri 

ro w ro M onvo pi in 

M t-i MM 





C^M -^GvO int^c^ rooo invo o m Ov CJ t^ 




mmw ^o int^-ri-vo t^co ro o o^ o in i>. 


f'; Ov ■* O l^vo t-^intv,-vi -S-a--1-OvM o N Ov 


in ^ ^ t^ t^vo If vo -s-in^roininmin^ro 




N ON o- N a- ro in r^vo ^ tr)^::, m -r m n vo t^ 




Ooo osO « M -*'-<-- r-o^Oi-oovo rot^ 


tl 


mmov- OO Tj-ir, ovO^O in>- m rot^ 


XI 




vo inM ino roM-CJ t^o -i-vir, -r -^ Ov inoo w 


E 


1-1 m Ov^ M ■* ino3 O N ro Ti- ^a-vo ro P) oo 








^ 





(U 



;x! 

en 

a 

dD- O ^ u 
c - ■ — 



i' 5 3 



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STATISTICAL TABLES. 



337 



inor^Tj-N Oh (f> ^ Tj-r-swvo t^M N ^" N r^ou~. u-iTfinrxr<-it^ 


lO 




00 >n m rr-. o lO -"too (^i-«Nh\OCJ>00N'-'O\(N i^vD r<-. OINHM>-Ot^ 






M row ro->j-rf, -^m-* irjvo yj lo fO »o lo lo lo^o t^ m in t^vo o >o ■* ro ■* ■* 




O c^o onm "^o -^n t^t^r^M t^\o '^a^t^'^Of^m'- Oco mm^- m 


C3^ 


Dn 


(N -^ *rrcr. r< 'y\ t^co m i-< co N ^ -a-oo m-ooONM o. - mooo m 


in 




c^ M p-t t^ uvvO ^o t^c^»no^m":^"^^*o onooo -^ t^o vo »n to -^vo -^oo 


t^ 








VO 


oou-)roO"~,oo\oo-*NP»o-<l- o^^o OO tvP) inrOw 0>0 -■ t~.o^c^ t^o 


N 


CO rnvo - t-^co 'O M lo O ^0 m^ r^co \o t-i ir, m c) c<^cs iom t^mmo'O 


TT 




00 O m 0^ covij ■<*■ tsVO ro C3^ mOO m^ONMi-i NOm 


03 


^ 






ro«i- mw ►-N Tl-roi-iH 


O 
•* 





ON lo O\oo "*■ t^ M M -« ■* -"l-oo M t> looo lo "-1 O vnoo M lA -^vo lo in 
ro W (N -^ t^OO 0\ 0\ cr> ri- as o-\ -^ as'^D M OS o\ inoo t^ M in t~ N t^ rooo VO 


O 






€©• 


ro 


■- ^Q»W ^ -''■•£> rf, o- a\ O •" t^OO t^OO Pi rr, OS so i- t^N^O OVO <N 

t--. LO r-.'O 00 ^o - t^ t- inoc m en j- ^ -^ ts o 0\-*rOTi--^t-^m-TTh(N pj 
in w ON M- t^ rr^o o in ■* m m m r-» m^ « oo mvo m-^ooo roo\" m 


00 


VO 

H 


vo inoo" OtJ-co-*-« t^-^cfinin •*-od cj 6 6\ >- rn c>oo vo co -j- ■- o (5 ci pj 
•^vo 00 rnw loinopi o-t^ rnvo t^ m 0\ P) m^ Om mTtO'*- m rovo P) 
M o " •* moo t^ ■*■ t^so t^-^mt^p) M mmo mrrr^t^omo t^vo o 


00 

ON 
Pi 


lO 

VO 


m pji-i mi-.MM«i-Nw 


00 

ro 





P« 00 NO 

t-l M M 

ro in in 



On pi ro On cn PI -3-00 m looo m lO u") ro o 00 in -t-oo vo 

0\\ososo CO oo' o ro -f NO NO NO ts ON in ro m' -o rONiT c? d> in i' oo oo in 
M onQoo o^ONrot^ON roco NOVO ONininmoi on roNO in O^oo oo oo in 
m PI mvo ro C^ ■^vo no cono t-~ O ro pi >-i t^ on t-^NO ro pi ro ro t-^oo m 



■* O OnOO in ro ■- w O 
roNO ■* in ro ro -^so no 


p« t-^ ro>0 NO O « -^oo t^in-")--' t^o -i -^oi o 
■* ro T^ ro PI 00 moo pi-^MH.i-imo>-ipiNOoopi 


NO 

oo 


oopiooo int^- t^O 

M t-l M t-t Pi ^ Pi 


t-^ m 1- ON On t>.NO On t^NO t^OO'-Pi'l-mpimin 

(Ni-.mP1m^.i-iih-hih«m>.mmm>.m«ih 


in 



O ON t^ 
M 00 00 


ro Tj-oo 
m m ro 


mvo 
Pi w 


NO M 
t^ -^ Pi 


•<»-co PI 
-<J- t^ « 


Ni-iroOOOOOOO moo ro m m 
ON -^No ONmooopimpiO'<*-f>.r^ 


m 
m 


H M M 


moo 

H Pi Pi 


Ti- m 


•* t^ Pi 

N Pi Pi 


M m -^ Pi 

PI PI W Pi 


M " t^-*mromm-<»-o rnoo ro O 

piPiN«WPiNPIMP)C1Pll.ipii-i 


Pi 
Pi 



Onno t^O Onpi t^rO'^rr-. pi inQ o-O) c^-^mno Pi mropi ^-no -^ i- p»nooo 
00 ropi ONPiOOONCi o -*0 ►"NO o o-o-i-- t-~oo ro t>.oo M t^ On rooo ro tj-oo 
00 o-oo NO ONO inm'^Tf-ONmm roco ►- oo mo ro on roNO pi "- O ro t-»NO oo 

so ro in d m ro c5^oo t^co pi (3 Pi' ro Pi •* pTvo pTod o>oo m t-^oo oo tC ro moo 
vo 00 G"N ro t^ O mNO rO'-oOOP<Piroo>m'*i-it^MHmi-ipii-iiHropi 
>-< t^ Pi ro M ro t^ ^NO O 00 NO PI t>.NO m PI M M M ro 



O NO 


On 


moo 


O 00 


ON 


t>. 


T^ 


M- 


On 


ro 


■* 


Pi 


PI vo 


Pi 


ro 


rONO 


m 


PI 


m ON o 00 


PI 


Pi 


r^ 


ON 


ro 


m 


ro 


Pi 


M 


H 


H 


t^ 


Pi 





On 


M 


00 


mvo Pi 


r-^vo 


Pi mvo 


m 


m 


ON 


o> 


T^^o 


o 


Pi 


p< 


NO 


■* 


ro 


Pi 


roNO 


M 


t^ 


t^NO 


^NO NO 


ON PI 


m ro T^NO 


« m 


•* 


fx 


ro 


r^ 


HI 


On 


r^ 


m 


Pi 


m 


m 


ro 


■* 


-<f 


■♦ 


ro 


-^ 


•* 


ro 


ro 


-1- 


■!«- 


ro 


Pi 


ro 


ro ro 


m 


PI 


ro ■* 


r'l 


PI 


Pi 


Pi 


ro 


ro 


Pi 


en 


PI 


€^ 


o 


f-^ 


a> 


On 


M 


r^ 


mNO 


t-, 


ro 


m 


I-, 


■^ 


f 


o 


O^ t-- 


t^ 


-^ 


moo 


t^ 


HH 


1/-J 


r^ 


M 


O 


Pi 


M 


oo 


NO 


-*NO 




ro O 


o~ 


r^ 


Pi 


r<-i 


m 


N 


ON 


^00 


Pi 


ro O 


ON 


■*oo 


■* 


.•N 


ro 


() 


■* 


N 


30 


in NO 


•<*• 





O 


m 


H 


VD 


Pi 


■* 


o 


^ -^ On ON NO 


m 


t^ Onno 


ON 


■1-co 


t-^ 


PI 


C^NO 


On 


'*• 


M 


Pi 


ON 


o> 


o 


•*• m 


Pi 


r^ 


M 


On ro O 


t^ 


tTOO 


■* 


M 


t>. roNO 


1^ 




MOO 


ro 


M 


»-« 


H 




H 


VO 


ONVO 


00 


On NO 


-"J-OO 




r*) 


M 




m On 






r'l 


roco 


■^ 






















m 




c^ 




M 
























Pi 






























Pi 
pT 



in pi VO m PI 00 00 -^oo vo on-^OnO-poo moo ■<^p^oooo ro moo ■- ro >- no t^ 


t^ 




■* t- t^ ON ON t~-oo t--i-i PI M -"ft^o t^rOM Onpi Onno vo mvo t-* o m m m 


o 
ro 




mo PiONPi ->l-t^-!h'4-ONPirO00 m-*-i^'0 ■*- t^i-vo O PiOO -^-Onh t^vo 


NO 

00 


ropirororororo-^ropi-rropjpipiPipirr. p^-^l,-NwM(•lp^plPil- 


€©■ 


'*1- t-^co ci Pi m Pi ro t^Nc- iTi o^ roNG -^mONinpi D c-^^ mm moo p^ 


t^ 


5- 


-=f t-~ M T^ moo m- Tt-^-mTtir, -oc m OxQ OOn •'J-no ^ O-O m i- m ro 


m 


CO r-~NO i!i- ro m roo t co no o -a- t^-c oo -- vo vo vo oo ^oo m f^ m oo ro 





^ 






o 




r-^rom-^M tvi-i tJ-^j-onpioo pioo t^pi t^O pj m •^ cono m ro -^ pi o^ pi oo 


■* 


rooo fo -^vo <-i r^ m ON t^ -*-co 00 ^ m rooo t^co 00 vo oo mt^mroovMOO ro 


Pi 


M M Pi ro M -*• t-» Tt-NO M T^ ■* >-i onoo nopimm M H H ^ Tt 


M 












m 





n 




tr 


<U 






ft; 


(r, 


rt 










rr 




V 




03 


^ 


c 


3 


X 


SI 


c 


O 


<u 


u 


i> 


.-1H<H 



■ ^ 



C rt 



J3 rt 



tn a « 






i:5 u 2 5 G oj 

■■" c 



ni5 



o 

- - o 

- n:^ c 
•- o 



c 
o 

ha . 
c c 



a 2 






o 



338 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



s?^a 






^ o S 



M lo 1^ m O loio 00 r~ 
vOoOMroOu^ONro 
t^ ro ro>0 O ON ■^vO 00 
lo ro cf N O >ri N rOocT 



o m>0 O MVOOO mo OO 
i/^ rooo O m\o M M \o lo t^ 
O N "1 0>^ IT) O ^ O ro >0 



O- "^ •* t^ in 
\r, o \n "Too" 



M O lO ro 



00 t^vo t^ c. fOOO -*■ irjoo vo 



O ro m fO o\ 



rt a 



U 



■>*• ON t^ OOO ^ O roxjvo t^ 
O iOromt^M t^lOfOt^CS 

O *-• 00 lO ro t^oO O^ Qv^O "^ 







inoo 


N 




vn 






00 00 


N 


r^ 


r^. 






■^ o 


■^ 


t^OO 


















« t^ 


m 


Ul 


a> 






fo t^ 


in 


•* 


1/1 






lOiO 


in 


M 


o 


















<0 H 


in 


N 


M 



u 



Hi 



t: 








r 


S 




o 


CC 






ll- 


3 






PQ 







cu 


a 
o 


t/i 


:n 


T) 


a 




V 


u 


, 


o 


rt 


^ 


^^ 



in O m rr)>0 in moo h oo w Ov^ t^ tj- t^ rn ui t-^vo \o m ro 

H 'J-^ inO" M ■"tO^O'O'O N t-»iniN 3-0^0000 N 
moo O c^ -^ O 00 IN O ■^^ t^ 0\'-0 m m m M m r^ -^ ■*\0 



ino\mmo\womcooo oO'-'t~'*ooa\-^ 



in t^ mjoo t^oo oo ^ N 0\ 



t^ -^ m m •* 



o 



t^ (M N O iriOO CM a<"*-mcM t>-*-0'OvD int^mt^-*-<i-w 

o m (n" " o m r~ mvo d- -' c> m c? d m -^^ in d d\ tC m" 
\o mi- t^M " -• o O CT>0 in"*--^inmmmN — vo mo 
o>vo t^ mvo ■* o o ovvo vOTi->-i-<*-(soo(NOOvinpiint^ 

ocTc^iomcr invd^ d t^ ■<*" fn 

t^ininejin novonO 

m N m N m 



00 m a>vo m N "O •<!■ -<i-oo m •<*- n vo t^ t^co m t^vo m o 
t^N M •^Tt-osfnt-xint^ ovvo m ov M w m oo moo oo m n 
N ■* ■* O ovoo w mM inMoovo Tj-Tj-t^t^ moo cm oo vo vo 

moo^ mtCt>.m-^dvtv(Ccvr 

t^OO N O 00 " 0> (-^00 o o 
Mi-i<MlHMMt^inO-*t^ 



lU 



(/i 






U 



.5 c c 



JT3 



S ^ > S Di u '.^. ^. CU Q S C> ^ iz; (/) O fc .5 ; 



C'5 

OJ 



CO 



.eS b£ 



c 
r? o 

C y m 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



339 



00 VO h> O P) 00 O 
N t^ O O ^ ■- r*^ 
"-1 in ro O CO ^O ►- 
IT] XT) ^ O- O ^ -^ 
'- O 00 ■<»■ m O t^ 

VO t^ ro M 00 0> 



^8 
















8 




8 ; 



O O O M 

Tt- O -1- IN 

■O r~ lo M 

VO' On o' " 
M ■^ rl O' 
M M C< O 



' 00 o> wvo ro lo I 



ox in M M « in >o 



■Ci mvo ro ooo (N 00 o 
^o'oo oo' 1-^ rn ro O -^ C?^' ■<? ro lA M i-T iJ~ Jj t^oo o' ro "^ tv hT in 
r- moo m O 'O m^ vo "i*- NMwoOiHi-i»OmO t^*ci 



' VO eg in t»^oo 

M fO c>vo O VO t^ 



• 

■ <^ 
! in 




00 
VO 








• 

8 : 
^ : 

CO . 


• 

00 

in .* 
m . 




■^ O inmtvi o O ■*m •^vo i^mO'-.HMOOP) mvo 

VO r^CO d 1^00 r^OD -^00 00 OO t^^NOONVOinO- C?00 cTvcTvo' 
vOOvOMN-Hi-rO" •"1-00 OO OCO NVD NOOOO >-■ moo t^OO 00 t^ 
t^oOMt^'-co'-'Ommo^O'-'fnt^O'^o f-t^T^-O'^t-^t^ 

"ro Mi-Tro ■♦VO 



O c» i-i^i- (noroNvo o int^M nvo Ooo n n 



o\ >n'C t^vo 1-vo inoo oo-^mmo Ovo t^» t^vo in o oo 

•<t-vo cr> d\ 00 cT in dv in m' 



w VO rove G' -^ >- CO t^mO MOO 
ooooovtMin-^O-'OininM^ 

M^te- l-t Qi t-t t-t M 



00 00 VO ov o mvo VO M 00 ov m ovo m m -^oo t>. ■* in rooo m vo m 
O '-' t^oo "S- •*oo w I- 00 in N m mvo ■♦oo ■>*■ O f^oo t^ r^ m m O 
O-*0NN0f^'nm0i-iN'*f~»-''-'V0O inoo O N N t^^ " w 
rooo p-Too O lo hT ■<? in N d" t~ rnvo' O -i- w'vcToo^ ♦ in c?\ t^ cT ■♦ tC 
o 3' inoo " o ♦vo ♦owvoowcnptMr^iH ♦ Mt^Mi-i 
m ♦00 cjinr^mmcMfOiHG en Mm 



o o 

• rt rt nl 



U, 



• Sr-« J O 2 : fl " a, ^ 



fcuo .■= 
c c £ 



iS 
(/] 

•a 
"g 

x; 

H 



uo 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



NUMBER AND VALUE OF FARM ANIMALS IN 
THE UNITED STATES, 1870-95. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



Farm Animals. 


Jan. I, 1870. 


Jan. I, 1880. 


Jan. I, 1890. 


Jan. I, 1895. 


Horses, number. 


8,248,800 


11,201,800 


14,213,837 


15,893-318 


value... 


$671,319,461 


$613,296,611 


$978,516,562 


$576,730,580 


Mules, number.. 


1,179,500 


1,729,500 


2,331,027 


2,333108 


value . . . 


$128,584,769 


$105,948,319 


$182,394,099 


$110,927,834 


Milch cows, No. 


10,095,600 


12,027,000 


15,952,883 


16,504,629 


value.. 


$394,094,745 


$279,899,420 


$352,152,133 


$362,601,726 


Oxen and other 










cattle, number 


15,388,500 


21,231,000 


36,849,024 


34,364,216 


value.. 


$:!46,926,44o 


$341,761,154 


$560,625,137 


$482,999,129 


Sheep, number.. 


40,853,000 


40,765,900 


44,336,072 


42.294,064 


value — 


$93,364,433 


$90,230,537 


$100,659,761 


$66,685,767 


Swine, number.. 


26,751,400 


34,034,100 


51,602,780 


44,165,716 


value 


$187,191,502 


$145,781,515 


$243,418,336 


$219,501,267 


Total value of 










farm animals.. 


$1,822,327,377 


$1,576,917-556 


$2,418,766,028 


$1,819,446,306 



NUMBER OF FARM ANIMALS IN CANADA, 1891. 

(Census of 1891.) 



Provinces. 



Ontario 

Quebec 

Nova Scotia 

New Brunswick 

Manitoba 

British Columbia ... . 
Prince Edward Island 
The Territories 



Horses. 



771,838 
344,290 
65,047 
59,773 
86,735 
44.521 

37,392 
60,976 



Working 
O.xen. 



12,424 
45,676 
28,424 

7,510 
19,199 

2,631 
116 

7,583 



Milch 
Cows. 



876,167 

549,544 
141,684 
106,649 
82,712 
17,504 
45,849 
37-003 



Sheep. 


Swine. 


1,021,769 


1,121,396 


730,286 


369,608 


331,492 


48,048 


181.941 


50,945 


35,838 


54,177 


49,163 


30,764 


147,372 


42,629 


64,920 


16,283 



NUMBKR OF PURE-BRED CATTLE IN THE 
UNITED STATES, 1895. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



Ayrshire 

Brown-Swiss 

Devon . , 

Dutch-Belted 

Guernsey , 

Holstein-Friesian. . .. 

Jersey , 

" Maine State " Jersey 
Red Polled .. ., 



Registered. 


Living. 


Average 
Value. 


18,750 


9,375 


$100 


1,930 


1,200 


150 


17,007 


14,500 


81 


971 


720 


200 


12,547 


8,500 


165 


90,325 


70,000 


100 


150,000 


100,000 


100 


3,927 


2,800 


55 


4.408 


3,000 


80 



Total Value. 



*937,5oo 
180,000 

1,174.500 
144,000 

1,402,500 

7,000,000 

10,000,000 

154,000 

240,000 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



341 



STATISTICTS OF BUTTER, CHEESE, AND CON- 
DENSED 3IILK FACTORIES IN THE UNITED 
STATES. (Eleventh Census.) 



Totals fo?" 'le United States. 



Number of establishments reporting 

Capital employed, aggregate dollars 

Plant, total value " 

Land " 

Buildings " 

Machinery " 

Live assets " 

Expenses, total annual " 

Employes average nu mber 

Total wages paid dollars 

Earnings of skilled operatives, weekly: 

Average for males above i6 years " 

Average for females above 15 years. ....... " 

Average for children " 

Hours of labor, daily average: 

May to November hours 

November to May " 

Materials used: 

Aggregate cost dollars 

For butter: 

Gathered cream. pounds 

Milk 

Total cost dollars 

For cheese: 

Milk pounds 

Total cost dollars 

For condensed milk: 

Milk pounds 

Sugar , " 

Total cost dollars 

Fuel and rented power, cost " 

Products: 

Aggregate value " 

Butter made: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese, full cream: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese, skim: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Cheese, all other made: 

Quantity . . pounds 

Val ue dol lars 

Cheese, total made: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Condensed milk: 

Quantity pounds 

Value dollars 

Skim-mdk and all other products, value " 



Butter and 

Cheese 
Factories. 


Urban 
Estabs. 


4,552 


160 


16,016,573 


607,590 


11,639,692 


449,880 


968,333 


145,692 


5,588,257 


150,149 


5,083,102 


154,039 


4,376,881 


157-710 


813,954 


61,228 


14,369 


552 


5,116,005 


274,700 


9.48 




5-35 




2.75 




11.09 




10.03 




49,819,301 


1,545,273 


483,630,741 




1,893,319,242 




29,538,827 




2,684,550,517 




16,953,992 




83,617,655 




13,372,365 




2,792,086 




534,396 




60,635,705 


2,050,338 


181,284,916 




36,675,411 




184,158.174 




16,112,871 




22,467,132 




1,230,297 




31,409.759 




2,459,783 




238,035,065 




19,802,951 




37,926,821 




3,586,927 




570,416 





343 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



CHEESE, BUTTER, AND CONDEXSED-MIIJC PAO 
TORIES, ACCORDING TO STATES. 

(Eleventh Censr.s.) 



State. 



New York 

Wisconsin , 

Iowa 

Ohio 

Pennsylvania , 

Illinois .... 

Vermont 

Minnesota 

Kansas , 

Michigan 

Missouri 

Nebraska 

Indiana 

Connecticut 

Other States 

Total for the United States, 



No. of 
Factories. 



1,308 
966 
497 
330 
300 
262 
123 
106 

lOI 

100 
61 
58 
52 

49 

239 



4,552 



Employes. 



3,075 
1,817 

2,545 
890 
904 

1,540 
310 

855 
312 

424 
186 

475 
187 
162 
687 



14,369 



Value of 
Products. 



$14,385,966 

6,960,711 

10,545,182 

3,001,606 

5,319,434 
8,004,991 
1,602,641 
2,958,476 

919,787 
1,179,139 

400,551 
1,183,000 

402,556 

881,327 
2,890,338 



$60,635,705 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



343 



DAIRY PRODUCTS PRODUCED ON FARMS, AC- 
CORDING TO THE ELEVENTH CENSUS. 

(U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 



States and Territories. 



Maine* 

New Hampshire . 

Vermont 

Massachusetts . . . 

Rhode Island 

Connecticut 

New York 

New Jersey 

Pennsylvania 

Delaware.. 

Maryland 

Virginia 

North Carolina.,. 
South Carolina. . . 

Georgia 

Florida 

Alabama 

Mississippi 

Louisiana 

Texas 

Arkansas 

Tennessee 

West Virginia, . . . 

Kentucky 

Ohio 

Michigan — 

Indiana 

Illinois 

Wisconsin 

Minnesota 

Iowa 

Missouri 

Kansas 

Nebraska 

South Dakota 

North Dakota. .. 

Montana 

Wyoming 

Colorado 

New Mexico 

Arizona 

Utah 

Nevada 

Idaho 

Washington 

Oregon 

California 

Total, 1889..., 
Total, 1879. • • • 
Total, 1869. .. 



Butter. 



Pounds. 

15,593.315 

7,942.840 
23,314,063 

8,358,703 
965,456 

7,196,095 
98,241,813 

8,367,218 
76,809,041 

2,026,498 

9,999,602 
17,949,966 
13,129,374 

5,737,557 

14,483,323 

867,195 

14,548,435 

12,988,637 

2,189,774 

32,100,560 

15,724,144 
28,314,389 
14,063,627 
29,038,406 
74,990,307 
50,197,481 
48,477,766 
57,121,486 
46,-^5,623 
34,766,409 

72,o93:07i' 

43, 108, =21 

46,117,076 

27,818,078 

13,127,244 

5,712,566 

1,062,185 

4^8,269 

3,282,086 

86,042 

115,203 

1,759,354 
489,657 
1,078,103 
3,482,225 
4,786,277 
26,776,704 



1,023,821,770 
777,229,367 
514,088,188 



Cheese. 



Milk. 



Pounds. 
696,052 

34^,235 
609,586 
122,900 
24,631 
112,566 
4,324,028 

23,613 
439,060 

359 

9,573 

109,187 

60,760 

2,476 

12,833 

■ 1,731 

6,131 

4,808 

3,930 

145,730 

21,328 

69,919 

74,372 

64,822 

1,068,08- 

328,682 

- 360,048 

343,456 

906,266 

676,642 

1,038,358 

288,620 

759,210 

463,831 

303,951 

131,374 

11,512 

15,196 

87,183 

18,931 

10,855 

163,539 
51,207 

207,213 
71,281 

265,576 
3,871,57s 



18,725,218 
27,272,489 
53,492,153 



Gallons. 

57,969,791 
42,633 268 
90,712,230 

82,571,924 
10,610,547 
54,413,822 

663,917,240 
64,003,953 

368,906,480 
10,699,363 
46,601,218 
78,143,459 
55,250,665 

23,833,631 
52.234,508 
5,056,790 
55.508,687 
50,803,371 
12,881,927 
118,475,320 

54,325,673 
107,657,116 

59,449,066 
118,497,289 
326,925,396 
224,537,488 
200,510,797 
367,269,464 
303,701,134 
182,968,973 
486,961,411 
193,931,103 
201,608,099 
144,768,263 

59,666,523 

26,566,112 
6,038,096 
3,064,588 

19,680,791 

717,155 

709,225 

8,614,694 

2,532,052 

5,085,863 

19,873,281 

25,042,276 

111,191,186 



5,207,121,309 
529,632,966 
235,374,522 



344 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



DOMESTIC EXPORTS OF BUTTER AND CHEESE, 

1870-95. (U. S. Dept. of Agriculture.) 





Butter, 


Cheese. 


Year. 












Pounds. 


Value. 


Pounds. 


Value. 


1870 


2,019,288 


$592,229 


57,296,327 


$8,881,934 


1871 


3,965,043 


853,096 


63,698,867 


8,752,990 


1872 


7,746,261 


1,498,812 


66,204,025 


7,752,918 


1873 


4,518,844 


952,9^9 


80,366,540 


10,498,010 


1874 


4,367-983 


1,092,381 


90,611,077 


11,898,995 


1875 


6,360,827 


1,506,996 


101,010,853 


13,659.603 


1876 


4,644.894 


1,109,496 


97,676,264 


12,270,083 


1877 


21,527,242 


4,424,616 


107,364,666 


12,700,627 


1878 


21,837,117 


3,931,822 


123,783,736 


14,103,529 


1879 


38,248,016 


5,421.205 


141,654,474 


12,579,968 


1880 


39,230,658 


6,690,687 


127.553,907 


12,171,720 


1881 


31,560,500 


6,256,024 


147,995,614 


16,380,248 


1882 


14,794,305 


2,864,570 


127,989,782 


14,058,975 


1883 


12,348,641 


2,290,005 


99,220,467 


",134,526 


1884 


20,627,374 


3.750,771 


112,869,575 


11,663,713 


1885 


21,683,148 


3,643,646 


111,992,990 


10,444,409 


3886 


18,953,990 


2,958,457 


91,877,235 


7,662,145 


1887 


12,531,171 


1,983,698 


81,255,994 


7,594,633 


1888 


10,455,651 


1,884,908 


88,008,458 


8,736,304 


1889 


151504,978 


2,568,765 


84,999,828 


7,889,671 


1890 


29,748,042 


4,187,489 


95,376,053 


8,591,042 


1891 


15,187,114 


2,197,106 


82,133,876 


7,405,376 


1892 


15,047,246 


2,445,878 


82,100,221 


7,676,657 


1893 


8,920,107 


1,672,690 


81,350,923 


7,624,648 


1894 


11,812,092 


2,077,608 


73,852,134 


7,180,331 


1895 


5,5^8,8x2 


915,533 


60,448,421 


5,497,539 



EXPORTS OF DAIRY PRODUCTS FROM CANADA, 

1868-95. (Statistical Year-book for 1895.) 





Butter. 


Cheese. 


Year. 












Quantity. 


Value. 


Quantity. 


Value. 




Pounds. 




Pounds. 




1868 


10,649,733 


$1,698,042 


6,141,570 


$620,543 


1880 


18,535,362 


3,058,069 


40,368,678 


3,893,366 


1881 


17,649,491 


3,573,034 


49,255,523 


5,510,443 


1882 


15,161,839 


2,936,150 


50,807,049 


5,500,868 


1883 


8,106,447 


1,705,817 


58.041,387 


6,451,870 


1884 


8,075,537 


1,612,481 


69,755,423 


7,251,989 


1885 


7,330,788 


1,430,905 


79,655,367 


8,265.240 


1886 


4,668,741 


832,355 


78,112,927 


6,754,626 


1887 


5,485,509 


979,126 


73,604,448 


7,108,978 


1888 


4,415,381 


798.673 


84,173,267 


8,928,242 


1889 


1,780,765 


331.958 


88,534,887 


8,915,684 


1890 


1.951,585 


340,131 


94,260,187 


9,372,212 


1891 


3,768,101 


602,175 


106.202,140 


9,508,800 


1892 


5,736,696 


1,056.058 


118.270,052 


11,652,4x2 


1893 


7,036,013 


1,296.814 


133,946,365 


13,407,47^^ 


1894 


5,534,621 


1,095.5-8 


154,977,480 


15,488,191 


1895 


3,650,258 


697,476 


146,004,650 


14,253,002 



STATISTICAL TABLES. 



345 



POULiTRY AND EGG PRODUCT IN THE 
UNITED STATES, 

According to the Census of 1880 and 1890. 



Poultry on hand June i. Number 

Barnyajrd fowl (chickens) 

Geese, ducks, turkeys, etc 

Eggs produced (dozens) 



1879-1880, 



102,265,653 

23,234,687 

456,875,080 



1 889-1 890. 



258,472,155 

26,816,545 

817,211,146 



At 12 cents a dozen, a very moderate estimate, the annual value of the 
egg product on the farm rose from $55,000,000 in 1879 to $98,000,000 in 
1889, an increase of 79 per cent. There was an increase of 153 per cent in 
the number of barnyard fowl during the decade considered, and of other 
fowl (geese, ducks, turkeys, etc.) an increase of 15 per cent. 

IMPORTANCE OF API/VRIAN INDUSTRY IN THE 
UNITED STATES. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 

Apiarian societies in the United States iio 

Apiarian journals ... 8 

Steam factories for the manufacture of beehives 

and apiarian implements 15 

Persons engaged in the culture of bees (esti- 
mated) 300,000 

Honey and wax produced, at wholesale rates 

(eleventh census) $7,000,000 

Estimate of the present annual value of apiarian 

products $20,000,000 

PRODUCTION OF HONEY AND BEESWAX IN THE 
UNITED STATES ACCORDING TO CENSUS RE- 
TURNS OF 1869, 1879, AND 1889. 



Honey, lbs . . 
Beeswax, lbs. 



14,702,815 
631,129 



25,741,485 
1.105.556 



63,894,186 
1. 166.543 



34:6 GENERAL TOPICS. 



VI. DIRECTORY. 

DIRECTORY OF OFFICIAL. AGRICULTURAIj 
INSTITUTIONS. 

Organization of the U. S. Department of Agriculture. 
Washington, D. C. 

Secretary of Agriculture — Hon. J. Sterling Morton.* 
Assistant Secretary of Agriculture — Chas. W. Dab- 
ney, Jr. 

Scientific Bureaus and Divisions. 

Weather Bureau — Willis L. Moore, Chief. 

Bureau of Animal Industry — D. E. Salmon, Chief. 

Division of Statistics — Henry A. Robinson, Statis- 
tician. 

Office of Experiment Stations — A. C. True, Director. 

Division of Entomology — L. O. Howard, Entomologist. 

Division of Chemistry — Harvey W.Wiley, Chief Chem- 
ist. 

Division of Botany — F. V. Coville, Botanist. 

Division of Forestry — B. E. Fernow, Chief. 

Division of Biological Survey — C. Hart Merriam, Or- 
fiithologist. 

Division of Pomology — Samuel B. Heiges, Pomologist. 

Division of Vegetable Physiology and Pathology — 
B. T. Galloway, Chief. 

Division of Agrostology — F. Lamson-Scribner, Chief. 

Division of Agricultural Soils — Milton Whitney, 
Chief. 

Office of Fiber Investigations — Chas. Richards 
Dodge, Special Agent in Charge. 

Office of Irrigation Inquiry — Chas. W. Irish, Chief. 

Office of Road Inquiry — Roy Stone, Special Agent in 
Charge. 

* Term expires March 4, 1897. 



DIRECTORY. 347 

Gardens and Grounds — William S'dxxndcrs, Horticulltirist 
and Superintendent of Gardens and Grounds. 

Division of Publications — Geo. Wm. Hill, Chief. 

Division of Accounts and Disbursing Office— Frank 
L. Evans, Chief. 

Canada. 

Ministers of Agriculture — 

Dominion Minister of Agriculture, Hon. Sidney Fisher, 

Ottawa. 
Hon. John Dryden, Toronto, Prov. of Ontario. 
Hon. Louis Beaubien, Quebec, Prov. of Quebec. 
Hon. B. W Chipman, Halifax, Prov. of Nova Scotia. 
Hon. Julius L. Inches, Fredericton, Prov. of New 

Brunswick. 
Hon. J. H. Turner, Victoria, Prov. of British Columbia. 
Hon. Thomas Greenway, Winnipeg, Prov. of Manitoba. 



348 



GENERAL TOPICS. 








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DIRECTORY. 



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350 



GENERAL TOPICS. 



STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL SCHOOLS AND 
COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATES. 

(U. S. Department of Agriculture.) 



Tuition 
fees. 



State. 



Alabama (Auburn). . . 

Arizona 

Arkansas. 

California 

Colorado 

Conn. (New Haven). . 

Connecticut (Storrs)... 

Delaware (Newark) . . 

Delaware (Dover) . . . 

Florida (Lake City). .. 

Florida (Tallahassee). 

Georgia (Athens) 

Idaho 

Illinois. 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas 

Kentucky (Lexington) 

Kentucky (Frankfort) 

Louisiana (Baton 
Rouge) 

Louisiana (New Or- 
leans ...... 

Maine 

Maryland . . 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minn. (Minneapolis). . 

Mississippi (Agricul- 
tural College) 

Mississippi (Westside). 

Missouri (Columbia). . . 

Montana . . 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire 

New Jersey 

New Mexico.. .. .. . . 

New York 

North Carolina (Ra- 
leigh) 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

Pennsylvania 

Rhode Island 



, 




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1891 


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18 


1890 


13 


1873 


77 


1892 


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20 i 


1859 


47 1 


180- 






DIRECTORY. 



351 



STATISTICS OF AGRICULTURAL! SCHOOLS AND 
COLLEGES IN THE UNITED STATKS.—iConiznue^.) 



State. 



(C 1- 



D G a 



(Clem- 
"(br- 



South Carolina 

son College . . 
South Carolina 

angeburg) 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas (College Station) 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia (Blacksburg). . 

Virginia (Hampton) 

Washington 

West Virginia (Mor- 

gantown. , . ...... 

West Virginia (Farm). . 

Wisconsin 

Wyoming 



Total 



1872 
1884 
1869 
1871 
1889 
1885 
1872 
1890 
1892 



450 
162 
20:; 
368 
350 
379 
325 
159 
176 

250 

70 

» 1,598 

^33 



164321.195 3.847 



fc£5 



tcU 



3 Z. 



146 
20 

31 
187 

37 
86 
70 
54 
15 



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62 



229 3.003 



Tuition 
fees. 



<u ^ 



5 
60 

30 



§40 



i5 



5 
60 

30 



12.50 



' In universities. 2 Includes incidentals. 3 Kew. 

LIST OF AMERICAN VETERINARY COLLEGES. 

National Veterinary College, Washington, D. C: 
Dr. D. E. Salffio7t, Pres. ; Dr. Chas. F. Dawson, Sec. 

Veterinary Department, University of Pennsylvania, 
Philadelphia, Pa.: John Marshall, M.D., Dean. 

American Veterinary College, University of the 
State OF New York, New York City: Dr. A. Liazitard,lsl.Ti., 
Principal and Dean. 

School of Veterinary Medicine, Harvard University, 
Boston, Mass.: Chas. F. Lyman, F.R.C.V.S., Dean. 

Veterinary College, Cornell University, Ithaca, 
N. Y.: Prof. J. Law, Dean. 

School of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State Univer- 
sity, Columbus, O.: IV. J^. Lazenby, Secretary. 

Chicago Veterinary College, Chicago, 111. : Johs. 
Htighes, M.R.C.V.S., Principal. 

McKiLLip Veterinary College, Chicago, III.: M. H. 
McKillip, M.D., V.S., President. 

California Veterinary College, San Francisco, Cal.: 
Dr. Thomas Bonhill, Dean. 

Ontario Veterinary College, Toronto, Canada: Dr. A. 
Smith- F.R.C.V.S., Principal, 



352 



GENERAL TOPICSo 



DAIRY SCHOOLS IN THE UNITED STATES AND 

CANADA. 



State or Province. 


Location. 


Name of Director, Super- 
intendent, or Professor 
in Charge. 


Maine 

New Hampshire 

Vermont , 

Massachusetts 


Orono 

Durham 

Burlington 

Amherst 

Ithaca 

State College 

Blacksburg 

Columbus 

Agricultural College 

Urbana 

Madison 

St. Anthony Park 

Ames 

Columbia 

Fargo 

Brookings 

Logan 

Pullman 

Kingston 

Guelph 

Strathroy 

St. Hyacinthe 

Sussex 

Nappan 

Manitoba 


Prof. Chas. D. Woods 
Prof. F. Wm. Rane 
Prof. J. L. Hills 
Prof Wm Brooks 


New York 

Pennsylvania 


Prof. H. H. Wing 
Prof Geo C Watson 


Virginia 


Prof. J. M. INIcBryde 
Pr(if Thos F Hunt 


Ohio 


Michigan 


Clinton D Smith 


Illinois 


Prof. E Davenport 
Prof. E. H. Farrington 
Prof T L Haecker 


Wisconsin 


Minnesota 


Iowa 


Prof. James Wilson. 
Prof. H J. Waters 
Prof E E Kaufman 


Missouri 


North Dakota 


South Dakota 

Utah 


Prof. J. N. Trueman 
Prof F B Linfield 


Washington 


Prof. W. J. Spillman 
J. H. Ruddick. Supt. 
Prof H H Dean 


Ontario 




u 


F.J. Sleightbom. Supt. 
E. Castcl, Principal 
J. K. Hopkins 
W. S. Blair, Supt. 
C. C. McDonald, Supt. 


Quebec 

Newr Brunswick 

Nova Scotia .... 

Winnipeg 





Canadian Experiment Stations. 

Central Experlmental Farm — Wm. Saunders, Director. 
Experimental Farm — Nappan, N. S. ; W. M. Blair, Superin- 
tendent. 
*' " Brandon, Manitoba; S. A. Bedford, 

Superintendent. 
" *• Indian Head. N. W. T. ; Angus 

Mac Kay , Snperintendent. 
" *• Aga.ssiz, B. C; Thos. A. Sharpe, 

Superintendent. 
Experiment Station — Ontario Agricultural College, 

Guelph, Ont. ; James Mills, 
President. 



DIRECTORY. 



353 



LIST OF AGRICULTURAL! EXPKKi3IENT STATIONS 
IN THE UNITED STATES. 



State. 



Alabama (College) 

Alabama (Canebrake) 

Arizopa 

Arkansas 

California 

Colorado 

Connecticut (State).. 
Connecticut (Storrs).. 

Delaware 

Florida 

Georgia 

Idaho 

Illinois 

Indiana 

Iowa 

Kansas. . . 

Kentucky 

Louisiana (Sugar). . . , 
Louisiana (State) .... 
Louisiana (Noith) ... 

Maine 

Maryland 

Massachusetts 

Michigan 

Minnesota 

Mississippi 

Missouri 

Montana. 

Nebraska 

Nevada 

New Hampshire. .. 
New Jersey (State). . 

New Mexico 

New York (State). . . 
New York (.Cornell;.. 

North Carolina 

North Dakota 

Ohio 

Oklahoma 

Oregon 

i'ennsylvania ... 

Rhode Island 

South Carolina. 

South Dakota 

Tennessee 

Texas 

Utah 

Vermont 

Virginia 

Washington 

West Virginia 

Wisconsin . . . 

Wyoming . 



Location. 



Auburn 
Uniontown 
Tucson 
Fayetteville 
Berkeley 
Fort Collins 
New Haven 
Storrs 
Newark 
Lake City 
Experiment 
Moscow 
Urbana 
Lafayette 
Ames 
Manhattan 
Lexington 
New Orleans 
Baton Rouge 
Calhoun 
Orono 

College Park 
Amherst 
Agricultural College 
St, Anthony Park 
Agricultural College 
Columbia 
Bozeman 
Lincoln 
Reno 
Durham 
New Brunswick 
Mesilla Park 
Geneva 
Itl aca 
Riileigh 
Fargo 
Wooster 
StiUvvaier 
Corvallis 
State College 
Kingston 
Ckmson College 
Brookings 
Knoxvilie 
College Station 
Loyan 
Burlington 
BlacksDurg 
Pullman 
Morganiown 
Madison 
Laramie 



Director. 



W. L. Broun 
H. Benton 
W. S. Devol 
R. L. Bennett 
E. W. Hilgard 
Alston Ellis 
S. W. Johnson 
W. O. Atwater 
A. T. Neale 

0. Clute 

R. J. Redding 
C. P. Fox 
E. Davenport 
C. S. Plumb 
James Wilson 
Geo. T. Fairchild 
M. A. Scovell 
W. C. Stubbs 
W. C. Stubbs 
W. C. Stubbs 
Chas. D. Woods 
R. H. Miller 
H. H. Goodell 
C. D. Smith 
W. M. Liggett 
S. M. Tracy 
H. J. Waters 
S. M Emery 
Geo. E. McLean 
J. E. Stul)bs 
C. S. Murkland 
E. B. Voorhees 
C. T. Jordan 
W. H. Jordan 

1. P. Roberts 
H. B. Battle 
J. H. Worst 
C. E. Thorne 
G. E. Morrow 
H. B. Miller 
H. P. Armsby 
C. O. Flagg 

E. B. Craighead 
J. H. Shepard 
C. F. Vanderford 
J. H. Connell 
Luther Foster 
J. L. Hills 
J. M. McBryde 
E. A. Bryan 
J. A. Myers 
W. A. Henry 
P. P. Graves 



Year 
Estab- 
lished, 



1873 
1879 

1877 
1887 



1892 



1885 



1893 



1879 
1877 

1890 
18S2 
1800 
18S8 
1887 
1S88 
188S 
1887 
1882 
18S8 
1890 
1886 
i8fc8 
i8qi 
1888 



354 GEN Ell AL TOPICS. 

VI. AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY 
LITERATURE. 

MORE IMPORTANT WORKS ON DAIRYING. 

American. 

Arnold, American Dairying. Rochester, N. Y., 1876. 
(Out of print.) 

Decker, Cheddar Cheese Making. Second edition. Madi., 
son, Wis., 1895. 151 pp. $1.00. 

Flint, Milch Cows and Dairy Farming. Boston, 1888. 

Georgeson, Dairy Industry of Denmark. Washington, 
D. C, 1893. 133 pp. 

Grotenfelt-Woll, Modern Dairy Practice. Second edition. 
New York, 1895. 285 pp. $2.00. 

Gurler, American Dairying. Chicago, 1894. $1.00. 

Harris, Cheese and Butter Maker's Handbook. Glasgow, 
1885. 207 pp. 

Jones, Mrs. E. M., Dairying for Profit. Chicago, .1893^ 
63 PP- 50 cents. 

Monrad, The Dairy Messenger. Winnetka, 111., 1890-93. 
242 pp. $1.25. 

Monrad, A B C in Cheese Making. Winnetka, 111. 
Second edition. 68 pp. 50 cents. 

Monrad, Pasteurization and Milk Preservation. Win- 
netka, 111. 78 pp. 50 cents. 

Monrad, Cheese Making in Switzerland. Winnetka, 111. 
68 pp. 50 cents. 

Newell, Handbook on Cheese Making. Grand Rapids, 
Mich., 1889. 59 pp. 50 cents. 

Russell, Outlines of Dairy Bacteriology. Madison, Wis., 
1893. 186 pp. $1.00. 

Schoenman, Milk Testing. Madison, Wis., 1894. 39 pp. 
75 cents. 

Schoenman, Butter-fat and Dividend Calculator. Madi- 
son, Wis., 1895. 66 pp. $2.00. 

Stewart, Dairyman's Manual. N. Y., 1888. 475 pp. 

Willard, Practical Dairy Husbandry. N. Y., 1877. 546 pp. 

Willard, Practical Butter Book. N. Y., 1883. 171 pp. 



AGRICULTURAL AKD DAIRY LITERATURE. 355 

Eiigiish. 

Fleischmann, Book of the Dairy. London, 1896. los. 6d. 
Sheldon, Dairy Farming. London. 570 pp., 4to. 
Sheldon, The Farm and the Dairy. London, 1889. 154 pp. 
2s. 6d. 

Sheldon, British Dairying. 2d ed., 1896. 170 pp. 
Long, The Dairy Farm. London, 1889. 115 pp. 
feong and Morton, The Dairy. London. 146 pp. 
Oliver, Milk, Cheese, and Butter. London, 1894. 362 pp. 
Other European. 

BiSggild, Malkeriebruget i Danmark. Second edition. 
Copenhagen, 1896. 627 pp. 

Martiny, Die Milch, I-IL Danzig, 1871. 438 and 366 pp. 

Martiny, Kirne und Girbe. B«rlin, 1895. 404 pp., 4to. 

Martiny, Milchwirtschaftl. Taschenbuch. Published 
annually. Bremen. 

Fleischmann, Das Molkereiwesen. Braunschweig, 1876, 
1074 pp. 

Fleischmann, Lehrbuch d. Milchwirtschaft. Bremen, 
1893. 368 pp. 

Kirchner, Handbuch d. Milchwirtschaft. Bremen, 1891. 
618 pp. 

V. Klenze, Handbuch d. Kaserei-Technik. Bremen, 1884. 
643 pp. 

Eugling, Praktische Kaserei. Bremen, 1892. 260 pp. 

Weigmann, Die Methoden der Milch - conservirung. 
Bremen, 1893. 72 pp. 

Duclaux, Le Lait. Paris, 1887. 336 pp. 

Duclaux, Principes de Laiterie. Paris. 370 pp. 

Leze, Les Industries du Lait. Paris, 1891. 647 pp. 

Pouriau, La Laiterie, 5th ed. Paris, 1895. 898 pp. 

A LIST OF FIFTY AGRICULTURALi AND 
HORTICULTURAL BOOKS. 

Fream, Elements of Agriculture. 4th ed. London, 

1892. 486 pp. 
Webb, Advanced Agriculture. London, 1894. 672 pp. 
Mills and Shaw, Public School Agriculture. Toronto, 

i8go. 250 pp. 

Wallace, Agriculture. Philadelphia, 1895. 352 pp. 



356 GENERAL TOPICS. 

Gulley, First Lessons in Agriculture. N. Y., 1892. 155 pp. 

Winslow, Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1891. 152 pp. 

Storer, Agriculture in some of its Relations with Chem- 
istry. 4th ed. N. Y., 1S92. 2 vols. 551 and 590 pp. 

Voorhees, First Principles of Agriculture. N. Y., 1896. 
212 pp. 

Warington, Chemistry of the Farm. 7th ed. London. 
160 pp. 

Johnson, How Crops Feed. N. Y. 375 pp. 

Johnson, How Crops Grow. N. Y., 1890. 416 pp. 

Morrow and Hunt, Soils and Crops of the Farm. 
Chicago, 1892, 303 pp. 

Plumb, Indian Corn Culture. Chicago, 1895. 243 pp. 

Woll, A Book on Silage. Chicago, 1896. 190 pp. 

Allen, American Cattle^ N. Y., 1881. 528 pp. . 

"Wallace, Farm Live Stock. Edinburgh, 1889. 333 pp. 

McDonald, Cattle, Sheep, and Deer. 5th ed. London, 
1872. 745 + 91 PP- 

Warfield, Cattle Breeding. Chicago, 1890. 390 pp. 

Day, The Horse, How to Breed and Rear Him. 2d ed. 
London, 1890. 453 pp. 

Curtis, Horses, Cattle, Sheep, and Swine. College Sta- 
tion, Texas, 1888. 269 pp. 

Armsby, Manual of Cattle Feeding. N. Y., 1887. 525 pp. 

Wolff, Farm Foods, transl. by Cousins. London, 1895. 

365 pp. 

Stewart, Feeding Animals. 5th ed. Lake View, N. Y., 
1890. 558 pp. 

Randall, Practical Shepherd. N. Y. 452 pp. 

Coburn, Swine Husbandry. N. Y., 1888. 311 pp. 

Harris, On the Pig. N. Y., 1889. 318 pp. 

Collingwood, The Business Hen, N. Y., 1892. 150 pp. 

L. Wright, Book of Poultry. London, 1891. 591 pp. 

Cook, Bee-keeper's Guide. Lansing, Mich., 1884. 4tb 
ed. 337 pp. 

Law, Farmer's Veterinary Adviser. Ithaca, N. Y., 1880. 
426 pp. 

King, The Soil. N. Y., 1895. 303 pp^ 

Waring, Drainage for Profit and Health. N. Y. 252 pp. 

Miles, Land Drainage. N. Y., 1893. 199 pp. 



AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 357 

Poore, Rural Hygiene. London, 1893. 321 pp. 

Wilcox, Irrigation Farming. N. Y., 1895. 311 pp. 

Crozier and Henderson, How the Farm Pays. N. Y., 
1884. 400 pp. 

Bailey, The Horticulturist's Rule Book. 3d ed. N. Y., 
i8g6. 302 pp. 

Bailey, The Nursery Book. 2d ed. N. Y., 1892. 304 pp. 
* Barry, Fruit Garden. N. Y., 1889. 516 pp. 

Landreth, Market Gardening and Farm Notes. N. Y., 
1893. 215 pp. 

Fuller, Small Fruit Culturist. N. Y., 1888. 298 pp. 

Fuller, Grape Culturist. N. Y. 281 pp. 

Henderson, Practical Floriculture. N. Y., 1891. 325 pp. 

Weed, Insects and Insecticides. Hanover, N. H., 1891. 
281 pp. 

Lodeman, Spraying of Plants. N. Y., 1896. 399 pp. 

Fuller, Practical Forestry. N. Y., 1891. 299 pp. 

Jarchow, Forest Planting. N. Y., 1893. 237 pp. 

Barn Plans and Outbuildings. Orange Judd Co., N. Y., 
1893. 235 pp. 

Sanders, Practical Hints on Barn Building. Chicago, 
1893. 284 pp. 

Bennett, Farm Law. Portland, Me., 1880. 120 pp. 

AMERICAN DAIRY PAPERS. 

American Cheese-Maker. Grand Rapids, Mich. Monthly, 
50 cents. 

American Dairyman. Nevv- York City. Weekly, $1.50. 

Bulletin American Devon Cattle Club, Wheeling, W. Va. 
Monthly, 50 cents. 

Chicago Produce. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.50. 

Creamery Gazette. Des Moines, Iowa. Monthly, $1.00. 

Creamery Journal. Waterloo, la. Monthly, $1.00. 

Creamery Patron. Decorah, Iowa. 

Dairy World. Chicago, 111. Monthly, $1.00. 

Elgin Dairy Report. Elgin, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

Jersey Bulletin. Indianapolis, Ind. Weekly, $2. 00. 

Hoard's Dairyman. Fort Atkinson, Wis. Weekly, $1.00. 



358 GENERAL TOPICS. 



Holstein-Friesian Register. Brattleboro, Vt. Sem 
monthly, $i 50. 

The Milk News. Chicago, 111. Monthly, $1.00. 

The Milk Reporter. Deckertovvn, N. Y. Monthly, $1.00. 

New York Produce Review and American Creamery. 
New York City. Weekly. $1.00. 

The Pacific Coast Dairyman. Tacoma, Wash. Semi- 
monthly, $[.00. 

The Practical Dairyman. Chatham, N. Y. Monthly, 50 
cents. 

The Western Creamery. San Francisco, Cal. Monthly, 
li.oo. 

3IAIX FOKJEIGX DAIRY PAPERS. 

The Dairy. 14^ Fleet Street, London, England. Monthly, 3s. 

The Dairyman. 17 New Castle Street, Farringdon St., Lon- 
don, England. 

The Dairy World and British Dairy Farmer. 310 Strand, 
London, England. Monthly, 3s. 

NordiskMejeri-Tidning. Stockholm, Sweden. Weekly, 5 kr. 

Malkeritidende. Odense, Denmark. Weekly. 

Milch-Zeitung. Bremen, Germany. Weekly, 8 mk. 

Deutsche Molkerei-Zeitung. Berlin, Germany. Weekly, 
8 mk. 

Molkerei-Zeitung. Hildesheim, Germany. Weekly, 6 mk. 

L'Industrie Laitierc 33 Rue J. J. Rousseau, Paris, France, 
Weekly, 20 fr. 

La Laiterie. 18 Rue des Martyrs. Paris. Bi-weekly, 13. fr. 

Schweizerische Molkerei Zeitung, Zurich. Weekly, 6.60 fr. 

Die Milch Industrie. Berne, Switzerland. 



11 



AGRICULTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 359 

MAIN AMERICAN AGKICULTUK AL AND HORTI- 
CULiTUKALi PAPERS. 

Agricultural Epitomist. Indianapolis, Ind. Monthly, 50 
cents. 

American Agriculturist. New York City. Weekly, $1.00. 

American Bee Journal. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

American Cultivator, Boston, Mass. Weekly, $2.50. 

American Farmer. Chicago, 111. Semimonthly, 50 cents. 

American Fertilizer, Philadelphia, Pa. Monthly, $2.00. 

American Gardening. New York City. Semi-monthly, 
$1.00. 

American Grange Bulletin. Cincinnati, O. Weekly, $1.00. 

American Poultry Journal. Chicago, I1-. Monthly, $1.00. 

American Poultry Yard. Hartford, Conn. Weekly, $1.50. 

American Sheep Breeder and Wool Grower. Chicago, III. 
Monthly, $1.00. 

American Svvine Herd, Chicago, 111. Monthly, 50 cents. 

American Veterinary Review. New York City. Monthly, 
$3.00 

Acker und Gartenbau Zeitung. Chicago, 111. Weekly, f i.oo. 

Breeders' Gazette. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $2.00. 

Breeders' Journal. Beecher, 111. Monthly, $1.00. 

California Cultivator and Poultry Keeper. Los Angeles, Cal. 
Monthly, $1.00. 

Colman's Rural World. St. Louis, Mo. Weekly, $1.00. 

Colorado Farmer. Denver, Colo. Weekly, $2.00, 

Connecticut Farmer. Hartford, Conn. Weekly, $1.50. 

The Cultivator and Country Gentleman. Albany, N. Y. 
Weekly, $2.50. 

The Cultivator. Omaha, Neb. Semi-monthly, 50 cents. 

The Dakota Farmer. Aberdeen, S. D. Semi-monthly, 
$1.00. 

Farm and Fireside. Springfield, O. Semi-monthly, 50 cents. 

Farm and Home. Chicago and Springfield, Mass. Semi- 
monthly, 50 cents. 



360 GENERAL TOPICS. 

The Farmers' Advocate. London, Ont. Semi-monthly, 
$i.oo. 

Farmer's Call. Quincy, 111. Weekly, 50 cents. 

Farmers' Review. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.25. 

Farmers' Home. Dayton, O. Weekly, 50 cents. 

The Farmers' Magazine. Springfield, 111. Monthly, $2.00. 

Farm, Field, and Fireside. Chicago, 111. Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Farm, Field, and Stockman. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $i,oc. 

Farm News, Springfield, Ohio. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Farm, Stock, and Home. Minneapolis, Minn. Semi-month- 
ly, 50 cents. 

Farming, Toronto, Canada. Monthly, $1.00. 

The Farm Journal. Philadelphia, Pa. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Florida Agriculturist. De Land, Fla. Weekly, $2.00. 

Garden and Forest. New York City. Weekly, $4.00. 

Gardening. Chicago, 111. Semi-monthly, $2.00. 

Horse Review. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $2.00. 

Indiana Farmer. Indianapolis, Ind. Weekly, $1.00. 

Industrial American. Lexington, Ky. Semi-monthly,$i.oo. 

Industrialist. Manhattan, Kan. Weekly, 50 cents. 

Iowa Farmer. Cedar Rapids, la. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Iowa Homestead. Des Moines, la. Weekly, $1 00. 

Irrigation Age, Chicago, 111 Monthly, $2.00. 

Journal of Agriculture, St. Louis, Mo. Weekly, $1,00. 

Journal of Agriculture Illustrated. Montreal, Canada. 
Monthly, $1.00. 

Kansas Farmer. Topeka, Kan, Weekly, $1.00. 

Kentucky Stock Farm. Lexington. Ky. Weekly, $2,00. 

Live Stock Indicator. Kansas City, Mo. Weekly, $i.co. 

Live Stock and Farm Journal. Toronto, Canada. Monthl> . 
$1.00. 

Live Stock Report. Chicago, 111, Weekly, 

Live Stock Review. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $2.00. 

Louisiana Planter and Sugar Manufacturer. New Orleans, 
La. Weekly, I3.00. 

Maryland Farmer. Baltimore, Md. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Meehan's Monthly. Germantown, Pa. Monthly, $2.00 

Michigan Farmer. Detroit, Mich. Weekly, $1.00.. 



ArrHICLLTURAL AND DAIRY LITERATURE. 3C1 

Midland Poultry Journal. Kansas City, Mo. Monthly, 50 
cents. 

Mirror and Farmer. Manchester, N. H. Weekly, $1.00. 

Montana Stockman and Farmer. Helena, Mont. Weekly, 
$2.00. 

National Stockman and Farmer. Pittsburgh, Pa. Weekly, 
$1 50. 

Nebraska Farmer. Lincoln, Neb. Weekly, $1.25. 

Nebraska Homestead. Omaha, Neb. Weekly, f 2,00. 

New England Farmer. Boston, Mass, Weekly, $2.00. 

New England Homestead. Springfield, Mass. Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Northwestern Agriculturist. Minneapolis, Minn. Semi- 
monthly. 50 cents. 

Northwestern Farmer. St. Paul, Minn. Semi-monthly, 50 
cents. 

Ohio Farmer. Cleveland, Ohio. Weekly, $1.00. 

Ohio Poultry Journal. Dayton, Ohio Monthly, $1.00. 

Orange Country Farmer. Port Jervis, N. Y. Weekly, $1.00. 

Orange Judd Farmer. Chicago, 111. Weekly, S^i.oo. 

Pacific Rural Press. San Francisco, Cal. Weekly, $3.00. 

Poultry Monthly. Albany, N. Y. Monthly, $1.25. 

Poultry World. Hartford, Conn. Monthly, I1.25. 

Practical Farmer. Philadelphia, Pa. Weekly, ^i.oo. 

Prairie Farmer. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

Rural Canadian. Toronto, Canada. Monthly, $r.oo. 

Rural Californian. Los Angeles, Cal. Monthly, $1.50. 

Rural Life. Waterloo, la. Weekly, $1.00. 

Rural New Yorker. New York City. Weekly, ^i.oo. 

Skordemannen (Swedish). Minneapolis, Minn. Semi- 
monthly, 75 cents. 

Southern Cultivator. Atlanta, Ga. Monthly, $1.00. 

Southern Live Stock Journal. Starkville, Miss. Weekly, 
$1.00. 

Southern Planter. Richmond, Va. Monthly, $1.00. 

Swine-Breeders' Journal. Indianapolis, Ind. Semi-monthly, 
f i.oo. 

Texas Farm and Ranch. Dallas, Tex. Weekly, $1.00. 



362 GENERAL TOPICS. 

Texas Stockman. San Antonio, Tex. Weekly, $2.00. 

Turf, Field, and Farm. New York City. Weekly, $5.00. 

Wallace's Farmer. Des Moines, la. Weekly, $1.00. 

Western Agriculturist and Live Stock Journal. Quincy, 111. 
Semi-monthly, $1.00. 

Western Resources. Lincoln, Neb, Weekly, $2.00. 

Western Rural. Chicago, 111. Weekly, $1.00. 

Western Swine Herd, Geneseo, 111. Monthly, 50 cents. 

Williamette Farmer. Salem, Ore, Weekly, $2.00. 

Wisconsin Agriculturist. Racine, Wis, Semi-monthly, 50 
cents. 

Wisconsin Farmer. Madison, Wis. Weekly, $1,00. 

Wool Markets and Sheep. Chicago, 111, Weekly, $1,00. 



INDEX. 



Aberdeen Angus cattle, 21 

Accidents, what to do in case of, 299 

J* cidity of milk or cream, determination of, by alkaline tablet test, 239 

Mann's test, 241 
Adulteration of milk, 207 
Agricultural and dairy literature, 354 

horticultural books, list of, 355 

papers, main American, 359 
Agricultural associations, constitutions of, 287 

clubs, constitutions and by-laws of, 287 

educational institutions in the United States and Canada, 348 

engineering, 124 

products, average farm price of, 1886-1895, 335 

schools and colleges in the United States, statistics of, 350 
Alkaline tablet test of acidity in milk or cream, 239 
American trotter, the, 18 

Apiarian industry in the United States, importance of, 345 
Arbor Day, dates of, in different states and territories, 103 
Ash of cows' milk and colostrum, composition of, 196 
Ayrshire cattle, 171 
Babcock milk test, the, 197 

application of, 199 
Beef cattle, 21 
Berkshire pigs, 24 
Bordeaux mixture, 87 

Boyd, John, Boyd's process of cream ripening, 236 
Brown-Swiss cattle, 183 
Butter, 230 

American premium, analyses of, 243 

by deep, cold setting and Cooley system, 238 
shallow-pan creaming, 238 

cheese and condensed-milk factories in the United States, 341, 342 

composition of, 242 

conversion factor for calculating yield of, 244 

domestic expoits of, 1870-1895, 344 

363 



364 INDEX. 

Butter, English scale of points for judging, 248 

European, composition of, 243 

from separator cream, 239 

formula for calculating yield of, 243 

makers, American score for judging proficiency of, 249 
score in judging proficiency of, 248 

making, 230 

distribution of milk ingredients in, 247 
use of pure cultures in, 232 

milk requiied for making i lb. of, 246, 247 

records, official, 189 

score for judginfj, 247 

sour cream, composition of, 242 

sweet cream, composition of, 242 

yield from cream of different richness, 244 

milk of different richness, 245, 274 
By laws and rules for co-operative cheese factories, 282 

creamery associations, 279 
Caldwell, Prof. W. H., Guernsey cattle, 164 
California weir table, 137 
Canada, area and population, 323 

dairy schools, 352 

experiment stations, 352 

exports of dairy products, 1868-1895, 344 

meteorological data, 326 

Ministers of Agriculture, 347 

number of farm animals, 1891, 340 

production of various crops, 1891, 334 
Carcass, a steer''s, 156 

of farm animals, constituents of, 159 
Cattle, proportion of beef to live weight, 157 
the various parts of, 158 
Cattle foods, classification, 9 

comparative value, 15, 16 
Cereals, prices per bushel and per ton, 17 
Cheddar cheese, formulas for finding yield of, 261 

losses in curing, 263 

manufacture of, 250 
Cheese, butter, and condensed-milk factories in the United States in 1890, 

341, 342 
Cheese, composition of, 260 

curing-rooms, determination of humidity in, 255 

domestic exports of, 1870-1S95, 344 

Enjilish scale for judging, 259 

factories, cooper;,tive, by-laws and rules for, 282 
management, 268 
whey to be allowed pritrons of, 267 

loss in weight durinj? curini:, 263 

manufacture of. 250, 252 



IJSDEX. 365 

Cheese making, distribution of ingredients, 261 

fertilizing ingredients, 261 
use of pure cultures, 232, 235 
score for judging, 259 

synopsis of manufacture of principal varieties, 266 
varieties and analyses, 260 
yield from 100 lbs. of milk, 262, 264 
Chester White pigs, 24 
Cheviot sheep, 23 

Chinch-bugs, fighting the, by means of kerosene emulsion, 92 
Cisterns, capacity of, 137, 138 
Clark, W. G., M.D.C., Common diseases of farm animals, 35 

Veterinary remedies and doses, 45 
Cleveland Bay horses, 19 
Clovers, notes on adaptability and uses, 79 
Clydesdale horses, 19 
Coins, foreign, value of, 321 
Colostrum, composition of, 196 
Components of cows' milk, calculation of, 195 
Composition and weight of ordinary crops per acre, 59 
of ash of cows' milk and colostrum, 196 
butter, 242, 243 
colostrum, 196 

commercial fertilizing materials, 118 
cows' milk, variations in, 194 
cream, 210 
dairy products, 210 
different parts of same milkings, 194 
feeding stuifs, i 
live animals, 160 
milkof different breeds, 190, 191 
morning and evening milk, 194 
morning, noon, and evening milk, 194 
sweet- and sour-cream butter, 242 
various kinds of milk, 193 
Concentrated feeding stuffs, weight of, 15 
Condensed-milk, butter, and cheese factories in the United States in 1890, 

34^5 342 
Constitution and by-laws of agricultural clubs, 287 
road leagues, 294 

village-improvement societies, 292 
Contagious diseases, rules for treatment in case of, 52 
Conversion factor for calculating yield of butter, 244 

of U. S. weights and measures to metric, and vice versa, 311 
table for calculating fertilizing ingredients, 123 
pounds of milk into quarts, 209 
quarts of milk into pounds, 209 
Cooling milk or cream, water or ice required, 229 
Corn, cost per acre of raising, 335 



366 INDEX. 

Corn on the cob, measurement of, in cribs, 317 
Cost of irrigating canals and ditches, 136 
raising wheat and corn, per acre, 335 
Cotswold sheep, 23 

Cows, buying and selling by tests of the milk, 192 
care of, 278 
diseases of, 39 

premium, yields of milk and fat at state fairs, 188 
Crops, farm, enemies of, 87 
fertilizing materials in, 115 
soiling, 60, 61 

various, yields per acre. 67 

weight and average composition of, per acre, 59 
Craig, Prof. John A., Characteristics of breeds of live stock, 18 
Cream, application of viscogen in, 227 
composition of, 210 
formula for finding fat content of, 213 
gatherers, instructions to, 284 
ice required for cooling, 229 
preservation of, by heat, 225 
ripening, Boyd's process of, 236 
separators, capacity of, 217 
economy of, 216 
handling and care of, 214 
list of, 212 
use of alkaline tablet test with, 239 
yield from milk of different richness, 211 
Creameries and cheese factories, directions for making dividends in, 273 

suggestions to patrons of, 277 
Creamery associations, co operative, by-laws and rules for, 279 

management of, 268 
'Curing of cheese, losses in, 263 

rooms, humidity in, 255 
Cuts of meats, diagrams of, 156, 156a 
Dairy breeds, results of tests of, 186, 187 

yield of milk of, English standards for, 190 
cows, 161 

methods of judging the value of, 191 
rations for, it, 13 
yield of milk and fat from, 185 
farms, regulations for the government of dairies and, 53 
papers, American, 357 
main foreign, 358 
products, American analyses of, 193 
composition of, 210 
exports of, from Canada, 1868-1895, 344 

the United States, 1870-1895, 344 
fertilizing ingredients in, ig6 
produced on farms. 1890, 343 



INDEX. 367 

Dairy schools in the United States and Canada, 352 

statistics for the United States, i8go, 338 
Dairies and dairy farms, regulations for the government of, 53 
Dairying, i6r 

more important works on, 354 
Decker, John W., How American cheese is made, 250 
Devon cattle, 179 

Dewey, L. H., Table of noxious weeds, 82 
Dietaries, 148 

daily calculation of, 148 
Dietary standards, 148, 155 
Digestion coefficients, 2, 6 
Dimensions, interior, of farm buildings, 144 
Directory of official agricultural institutions, 346 
Diseases of farm animals, 35 
Disinfectants, list of, 52 
Disinfection of stables, rules for, 52 
Distance table for planting vegetables, 64 

tree-planting, 66, 102 
Dividends, directions for making, in creameries and cheese factories, 273 
Dorset sheep, 23 

Drains, earth removed for, of various dimensions, 127 
Duroc-Jersey swine, 24 
Dutch belted cattle, 181 
Duty of water, 132 
Economy, pecuniary, of food, 152 
Engine management, 221 
Engineering, agricultural, 124 
English milking trials, results of, 189 
Essex pigs, 24 

Exhaustion of fertilizers, 120 
Farm animals, common diseases of, 35 
constituents of carcass, 159 
duration and frequency of heat in, 306 
estimated number on farms and ranches, 1896, 336 
food requirements of, 15 
in Canada in 1891, 340 
in the United States in 1870-1895, 340 
live, composition of, 160 
standard rations for, 10 
buildings, interior dimensions of, 144 
crops, enemies of, 87 
products, fertilizing constituents of, 111 

yard manure, amounts required to replace ingredients abstracted by 
various crops, 116 
Farms in the United States, statistics concerning, 327, 328 
Farming population of the United States, 327 

Farrington, Prof. E. H., The alkaline tablet test for acidity in milk or 
gream, 239 



368 INDEX. 

Fat, relation of, to casein and other solids of milk, 195 
Fattening animals, comparative results obtained with, 157 
Feeding and general care of poultry, 25 
standards for farm animals, 10 
stuffs, chart showing manurial value of, 112 
composition of, i, 3 
concentrated, classification, 9 

weight of, 15 
fertilizing constituents, iii 
valuation of, 17 
Feed rations, calculation of components of, 11 
F'ermentation tests, 253, 255 
Fernow, Prof. B. E., Forestry for farmers, 95 
Fertilizing constituents of feeding stuffs and farm products, iii 
ingredients, composition of, 118 

conversion table for calculation of, 123 
equivalent quantities of, 121 
in dairy products, 196 
different crops, 115 

raw materials and chemicals, trade value of, 122 
voided by animals, 117 
withdrawn by various crops, 114, 115 
Fertilizers, exhaustion of, 120 
Field crops, 56 

Fish, N. S., Brown-Swiss cattle, 183 

Flag signals adopted by the U. S. Weather Bureau, explanation of, 296 
Food economy, 147 
fuel value, 146 
Foods, human, 145 

Food materials, human, composition of, 149, 150 
nutrients furnished for 25 cents in, 153 
pecuniary economy of, 152 
Forestry, 95 

fire laws in the United States, 104 
for farmers, 95 
Formulas for calculation of total solids in milk, 203 
yield of butter, 243 
converting degrees Centigrade or Reaumur to Fahrenheit 

and vice versa, 315 
finding adulteration of milk, 207 
fat content of cream, 213 

separator skim-milk, 221 
quantity of water or ice required for cooling milk 

or cream, 229 
yield of Cheddar cheese, 261 
Frederiksen, J. D., Handling and care of cream separators, 214 
French coach horses, 19 
Fruit trees, distances apart, 66 
longevity, 66 



INDEX. 369 

Fruit trees, time required to bear fruit, 66 
Fuel value of food materials, 146 

woods, 100 
Fungous diseases of plants, treatments for, 87 
Galloway cattle, 21 
Gerber fermentation test, the, 254 
Germination standards of seeds, 77 
Gestation calendar, 305 
Goff, Prof. E. S., Treatments for injurious insects and fungous diseases of 

plants, 87 
Government land measures, 316 
Grass seeds, amounts to sow per acre, 77 

number, weight, and cost of, 77 
Grasses, notes on adaptability and uses of, 79 
Guernsey cattle, 164 
Gurler, H. B., Butter-making, 230 
Hackney horses, 19 
Hand separators, list of, 212 
Hawks and owls, beneficial and harmful, 298 
Hay, seed mixtures for, 57 
Heredity, 30 
Hereford cattle, 21 

Hicks, Gilbert H., Seed-testing for the farmer, 7a 
Highland cattle, 24 

Hills, number of, on an acre of land, 63 
Hog cholera, suppression of, 49 
Holstein-Friesian cattle, 168 

Honey and beeswax in the United States, production of, 345 
Horn-fly, remedies for, 51 
Horse, labor done bv, 142 
Horse-power, 225 

Horse-power required for separating xooo lbs. milk, 216 
Horses, diseases of, 35 

draft of, 141 
Horticulture, 64 

Hoxie, S., Holstein-Friesian cattle, 168 
Human foods. 145 

composition, 145 
Humidity in cheese-curing rooms, 255 

relative, in curing-rooms, table showing, 257 
Ice required for cooling milk or cream, 229 
Inches reduced to decimals of a foot, 312 
Injurious insects, treatments for, 87 
Interest tables, 303 
Irrigated land, value of, 134 
Irrigating canals and ditches, cost per mile, 136 
Irrigation, 132 

efficiency of windmills for, 129 

pipes, cost of, 136 



370 INDEX. 

Jersey cattle, i6i 

Kerosene emulsion, 89, 92 

Kilograms converted into pounds Avoird., 3x9 

Lactometer, 199 

Land measures, government, 316 

Legal weights of grain, seeds, etc., 3x8 

Leicester sheep, 23 

Lincoln sheep, 23 

Live animals, composition of, 160 

mineral matters in 100 parts, 160 
Live stock, characteristic breeds of, 18 
London purple, 88 
Loss of butter from inefficient skimming, 220 

cheese in curing, 263 
Main pipe, rule for obtaining size of, 126 
Mann's test, direction for use of, 241 
Manures, amount and quality produced by stock, 116 

and fertilizers, 108 

valuation of, 109 

composition, amount, and value of, from different farm animals, 117 
Manurial value of feeding stuffs, chart showing, 112 
Maple syrup, specific gravity, sugar content, and boiling-point, 69 

sugar obtained from, 70 
Marshall rennet test, 250 
Meat, diagrams of cuts, 156 
Merino sheep, 22 

Mineral matters in 100 parts of live animals, 160 
Milch cows, diseases of, 39 
Milk, adulteration, 207 

average composition, with variations, 194 

calculations of components, 195 
total solids, 203 

composition of various kinds, 193 

care of, 277 

gatherers, instructions to, 284 

ingredients, distribution of, in butter-making, 947 

cheese-making, 26X 

morning and evening, composition of, 194 
noon, and evening, composition of, 194 

payment of, at creameries and cheese factories,-268 

preservation of, by heat, 225, 227 

price of, per 100 lbs., 271 

records, official, 189 

relation of fat to casein and other solids of, 195 

relative cheese value of, 264 

required for making i lb. of butter, 246, 247 

skimming and watering of, 207, 208 

standards, 206 

table for converting pounds of, into quarts, 209 



INDEX. 371 

Milk, table for converting quarts of, into pounds, 209 
finding average per cent of fat in, 275 

testing, a chapter on, 197 

use of alkaline tablet test with, 239 

watering of, 207 
Milking trials, English, results of, 189 
Milkings, composition of different parts of same, 194 
Miner's inch, 133 
Money, foreign, value of, 321 

order, fees, 308 
Monrad rennet test, the, 250 
Mutton, diagrams of cuts, 156^ 

New York Board of Health lactometer, comparison with Quevenne lac- 
tometer, 200 
Nitrogen voided by animals, 117 
Noer, J., M.D., What to do in case of accidents, 399 
Noxious weeds, table of, 82 
Number of plants for an acre of ground, 62, 63 

trees on an acre, 99 
Nutrients, 145 

furnished for 25 cents in food materials, 153 
Nutritive ratio, 2 

Official milk and butter records, 189 
Orchard-spraying outfit, 93 
Ounces reduced to decimals of a foot, 31a 
Oxford sheep, 23 

Pasteurization of milk and cream, 225 
Pastures, permanent, seed mixtures for, 57 
Patrons, rules for, 284 

Payment of milk at creameries and cheese factories, a68 
Percheron horses, 20 

Perishable goods, temperatures injuring, 71 
Pickrell, J. H., Shorthorns as dairy cows, 173 
Pipes, carrying capacity of, 135 

cost of, for irrigation, 136 
Plant diseases, treatments for, 87 

number of, for an acre of ground, 62, 63 
Plowing, performance of team in, 142 
Poisoning, antidotes in cases of, 301 
Poland China pigs, 24 
Pork, diagram of cuts of, is6a 
Postage, domestic, 307 

foreign, 307 
Potatoes, relation of specific gravity, dry matter, and starch conten Of, 68 
Poultry and egg product in the United States, 1880 and 1890, 345 
Poultry, breeds of, 30 

feeding and care of, 25 
Pounds converted into kilograms, 312 
Power required for discharge of water, 132 



372 INDEX. 

Power required to raise water from deep wells, 136 

separators, list of, 212 
Precipitation, normal, in Canada, 326 

the United States, 325 
Preservation of milk and cream by heat, 225 
Pure cultures, use of, in butter and cheese making, 232 
Purity standards of seeds, 75 
Quevenne lactometer, 199 
Rainfall, 128 
Rations for dairy cows, practical, 13 

standard, 10, 11 
Record, highest, for yield of fat, 188 
Records, milk and butter, official, 189 
Red polled cattle, 176 
Rennet test, 250 

Richards, H. B., Dutch belted cattle, 181 

Richter, Prof. A. W., Steam boiler and engine management, 221 
Road leagues, constitution of, 294 

making, 138 
Roads, drainage, 138 

different kinds of, force required to draw a load on, 140 

good, importance of, 140 

gravel for, 139 

repairs, 139 

stone required for maintenance of, 143 

weight required to move vehicles on, 141 
Russell, Prof. H. L., Preservation of milk and cream by heat, 225 
Seed mixtures for grass and clover, 58 

hay and permanent pastures, 57 

per acre, 56 

testing for the farmer, 72 

vegetable, quantity required per acre, 65 
Seeds, 72 

germination standards, 77 

grass, number, weight, cost, and amount to sow per acre, 77 

purity standards, 75 
Separator skim-milk, conditions determining fat content of, 221 

formula for obtaining fat content of, 221 

per cent fat in, 215 
Shaw, Prof. Thos., Heredity, 31 
Sheep, diseases of, 43 

proportions of the various parts of, 158 
Shire horses, 20 
Shorthorn cattle, 21, 173 
Shropshire sheep, 22 

Silos, cylindrical, area of feeding surface required to supply different 
sized herds, 62 

capacity of, 6t 
Sisson, L. P., Devon cattle, 179 



INDEX. 373 

Skimming of milk, detection of, 207 

Slope, rise per 100 feet, 127 

Smith, J. McLain, Red-polled cattle, 176 

Soiling crops adapted to Northern New England states, 60 

time of planting and feeding, 61 
Solids of milk, calculation of 203 

tables for obtaining, from specific gravity and per cent of fat, 205 
Southdown sheep, 22 
Specific gravity of various substances, 68, 69, 319 

^ woods, 100 

Spraying calendar, 89 

outfit for orchards, 93 
Standard rations for farm animals, 10, 11 
Starch equivalent, 2 
Statistical tables, 323 

Steam boiler and engine management, 221 
Steers, live and dressed weights of, 1563 
Sterilization of milk and cream, 225, 227 
Sub-humid region, 134 
Suffolk horses, 20 

sheep, 23 
Swine, diseases of, 44 

live weight and gains made, 157 
plague, suppression of, 49 
proportions of the various parts of, 158 
Tainted milk, causes of, 253 
Tamworth pigs, 24 
Tanks, capacity of, 137 

Temperature-correction tables for specific gravity of milk, 201 
Temperature of the air, normal mean, in Canada, 326 

the United States, 324 
Temperatures injuring perishable goods, 71 

Testing milk and other dairy products by Babcock's method, 197 
Tests of dairy breeds at American experiment stations, 186 
World's Columbian Exposition, 187 
Thermometer scales, comparisons of, 313 
Thoroughbred horse, the, 18 
Tile-draining land, reasons for, 124 

pipe of main drain, size required, 126 
Tiles, number required per acre, table showing, 125 

size required, 125, 126 
Tires, wide, effect of, 143 
Tractive force required for carriages, 140 
Trade values of fertilizing ingredients, 122 
Tree-planting, distance table, 102 
Trees, number on an acre, 99 

United States, agricultural experiment stations in, 353 
wages, 1893-1895, 329 
apiarian industry, importance of, 345 



374 INDEX. 

United States, area and population, 323 

cereal products, principal, 1850-1890, 334 

comparison of leading industries, 326 

cost per acre of raising wheat and corn, 1893, 335 

crops, principal, 334 

dairy schools, 352 

statistics for 1890, 338 

Department of Agriculture, organization, 346 

farming population, 327 

number and value of farm animals, 1870-1895, 340 

of farms in, and their value, 327 

pure-bred cattle, 1895, 340 

poultry and egg product, 1880 and 1890, 345 

precipitation, normal, 325 

product and value of principal crops, 1895, 334 

production of honey and beeswax, 345 

statistics of butter, cheese, and condensed-milk factories, 341, 342 
farms, 328 
principal crops, 1895, 330 

temperature of the air, normal mean, 324 

value of principal farm products, 329 

wages, agricultural, 1893-1895, 329 
Veal, diagram of cuts, 156^ 
Vegetable seed required per acre, 65 
Vegetables, usual distances for planting, 64 
Veterinary colleges, American, list of, 351 

remedies and doses, 45 
Victoria pigs, 24 

Village-improvement societies, constitution of, 292 
Viscogen, 227 
Wages, agricultural, in the United States, 1893-1895, 329 

by the week and the day, table of, 304 
Wagon tires, wide, effect of, 143 
Water, acre-foot of, 133 

carrying capacity of pipes, 135 

duty of, 132 

flow through straight pipes, 135 

power required for discharge of, 132 

to raise, from deep wells, 136 

required for cooling milk or cream, quantity, 229 

right, 132 

second-foot, 133 
Watering of milk, 207 
Weather Bureau, the, explanation of flag signals adopted by, 296 

services, state, list of headquarters of, 298 
Weeds, 82 

noxious, table of, 82 
Weights and measures, 309 

customary system of, 309 



INDEX. 375 

Weights and measures, conversion of, to metric, and vice versa^->,\\ 

metric system of, 310 
Weights, legal, of grain, seeds, etc., 318 
Weir table, the California, 137 
Wheat, cost per acre, of raising, 335 

Wheeler, Prof. Wm. P., Feeding and general care of poultry, 25 
Whey to be allowed patrons, 267 
Wind, force and velocity of, 129 
Windmills, capacity, 130 
economy, 131 

square feet and acres irrigated by, 129 
Winslow, C. M., Ayrshires, 171 
Woods, fuel value and specific gravity, 100 
World's Columbian Exposition, results of breed tests at, 187 
Yield of butter, formula for calculating, 243 

Cheddar cheese, formula for calculating, 261 
cheese from 100 lbs. of milk, 262, 264 
fat, highest record, 188 

milk and fat by premium cows at state fairs, 188 
from dairy cows, 185 

of dairy breeds, English standards for different breeds 
186, 187, 189, 190 
Yields, average, per acre of various crops, 67 
Yorkshire pigs, 24 



:Jty 



